GIFT OF
JANE K.SATHER

x^

THE SYNTAX of HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY

NEW YORK

THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON AND EDINBURGH

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SHANGHAI

THE SYNTAX

OF

HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

A CO-OPERATIVE STUDY BY FIFTY COLLABORATORS

EDITED BY

LEE BYRNE

Principal of Mobile (Alabama) High School

REVISED EDITION

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

COPYRIGHT 1909 AND 1918 BY
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

All Rights Reserved

Published August 1909

Second Impression January 1914

Revised Edition August 1918

^ cT/Tn j

Composed and Printed By

The University of Chicago Press

Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.

COLLABORATORS

Virginia Alexander, West High School, Washington, D. C.

E. H. Atherton, Girls' Latin School, Boston

A. B. Babbitt, DeLancey School, Philadelphia

Florence Backus, Keokuk High School, Iowa

A. E. Bartlett, Central High School, Detroit

Fred O. Bates, Central High School, Detroit

Augusta J. Boone, Meriden High School, Connecticut

Louise M. Breitenbach, Detroit Home and Day School

Letta Brock, Champaign High School, Illinois

Lee Byrne, Mobile High School, Alabama

H. D. Cannon, Male High School, Louisville

W. L. Carr, University High School, Chicago

Olive B. Catlin, Girls' High School, Louisville

John Charles, Wichita High School, Kansas

Emma K. Clark, Girls' High School, Brooklyn

C. C. Cobb, Marshall High School, Chicago

W. F. Dales, Central High School, Washington, D. C.

Mildred Dean, Central High School, Washington, D. C

Alice M. Donnelly, Woodward High School, Cincinnati

Netcie Fillmore, Woodward High School, Cincinnati

E. L. Findley, East High School, Cleveland

Mary R. Fitzpatrick, East Division High School, Brooklyn

E. W. Given, Newark Academy, New Jersey

J. F. Hall, Tempe Normal School, Arizona

A. Z. Hartman, Baltimore City College

W. L. Hartman, Perkiomen Seminary, Penrisburg, Pennsylvania

J. C. Hazzard, Portland Academy, Oregon

Mabel C. Hawes, Central High School, Washington, D. C.

Kate Healy, Fort Dodge High School, Iowa

W. W. King, Newark High School, New Jersey

Myra E. Matthews, Orange High School, New Jersey

C. J. Mendelsohn, College of the City of New York

Mary L. Miner, East High School, Detroit

A. Muntsch, St. Louis University

E. W. Murray, University of Kansas

Elizabeth M. Perkins, Vassar College

John A. Peters, Central High School, Detroit

J. L. Phillips, Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts

Henry Preble, Harvard University

vi COLLABORATORS

A. S. Rainey, Central High School, Washington, B.C.

Cornelia M. Raymond, Vassar College

Lizzie C. Smith, Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago

Zina D. Snyder, Central High School, Minneapolis

Roland H. Tanner, Illinois College, Jacksonville

H. F. Taylor, New Rochelle High School, New York

A. T. Walker, University of Kansas

Grace M. Warner, Moline High School, Illinois

G. A. Whipple, Evanston High School, Illinois

Martha Whitney, University of Kansas

Julia E. Winslow, Girls' High School, Brooklyn

PREFACE

This investigation is a contribution, not to Latin studies, but
to scientific procedure in the field of education. It aims to furnish
a scientific basis for the determination of part of the curriculum
material in high-school Latin. It is not fundamental or primary
in the sense that some recent educational studies are, such as
Charters, A Course of Study in Grammar Based upon the Gram-
matical Errors of School Children of Kansas City, Mo.1 Charters'
study may be said to be fundamental, because it shows that there
is a social need for the teaching and learning of English grammar,
and proceeds by scientific methods to determine for what material
an actual social need exists. Our study is of a secondary character,
because we do not show that there is a social need for the study
of Latin; we start with the assumption that Latin is extensively
studied, and try to show how the activity can be carried on with
greater economy of time and greater efficiency in results. We do
not even show that Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil constitute the best
reading, but make the additional assumption that these authors
are very widely used; then we employ scientific procedure to
establish a basis for the selection and arrangement of an important
division of the curriculum material, viz., the topics of syntax.
The methods employed would be equally applicable to any other
readings.

The joint authors of the work recognize that it has serious
limitations if viewed as a philological study; in fact, very few of
the collaborators are professed students of Latin syntax; they are
merely hard-working teachers of Latin bent on making Latin
teaching more economical and effective. From the point of view
of statistical method which aims to ascertain main tendencies and
important divergences rather than minute differences there need
be no question that the results have a sufficiently high reliability
to serve the educational purposes for which they are intended.

1 Bulletin, Education Series No. 9, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo., 1915;
out of print.

viii PREFACE

In fact, a great deal of labor could have been saved by merely
making a careful "sampling" of the texts and estimating the
relative frequencies of constructions on this basis. It was felt,
however, that the uprooting of conservatism, tradition, and in-
difference in syntax teaching could not be expected to result from
any demonstration short of a complete enumeration. To be sure,
some errors must have occurred in making 50,000 judgments.
Moreover, some constructions are capable of more than one inter-
pretation. But these facts do not appreciably modify the essen-
tials of the situation as to saving and waste, arrangement and
emphasis. The chief topics omitted from the count are principles
of agreement (including appositional and predicate construction),
uses of pronouns, meanings of tenses, and word order.

The book aims to do for syntax what Professor Lodge's
Vocabulary of High School Latin1 does for vocabulary, furnishing
in conjunction with the latter work, it is hoped, a scientific basis
for selection and arrangement of linguistic material in the high-
school Latin curriculum.

All references are to the Teubner texts of the authors. Meusel's
text of Caesar was originally employed, but the numbers were later
changed to those of Teubner, as the text likely to be in the hands of
most teachers.

We have used freely Heynacher's Sprachgebrauch Caesars, and his
Beitrage zur zeitgemdssen Behandlung der lateinischen Grammatik;
Holder's index to Caesar; Meusel's Lexicon Caesarianum; Merguet's
Lexicon to Cicero's Orations; Lodge's Vocabulary of High School
Latin, and his Helps for the Teaching of Caesar, including W. F.
Little's Studies in the Syntax of Caesar's "Gallic War"-, Walker's
Sequence of Tenses in Latin; and various articles. Most useful
has been Heynacher's Sprachgebrauch. Special thanks are due to
Mr. W. L. Carr, of the University High School, Chicago, and Mr.
H. F. Taylor, of the High School, New Rochelle, N.Y., who, being
engaged upon collections of their own, have given us much help in
several places. Mr. E. S. Armstrong, of Central High School has
kindly read the proofs. Mr. H. F. Pratt of the commercial depart-
ment has verified numerical computations.

1 Published by Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.

PREFACE ix

The list of individual contributions by subjects is as follows:

Nominative and Vocative: B. G. i and ii, J. L. Phillips; iii and iv,
W. L. Carr; Cat. i-iv, H. F. Taylor; Pomp, and Arch.,TL. Preble;
Aen. i and ii, C. C. Cobb; iii and iv, Nettie Fillmore; v and vi, L.
Byrne.

Genitive: B. G. i and ii, J. L. Phillips; iii and iv, W. L. Carr;
Cat. i-iv, H. F. Taylor; Pomp, and Arch., H. Preble; Vergil, J. C.
Hazzard.

Dative: B. G. i and ii, J. L. Phillips; iii and iv, W. L. Carr; Cat.
i-iii and Aen. i-iii, W. L. Hartman; Cat. iv, H. F. Taylor; Pomp.,
H. Preble and A. E. Bartlett; Arch., Elizabeth M. Perkins and
A. E. Bartlett; Aen. iv, Nettie Fillmore; v, J. Charles; vi, C. C.
Cobb.

Accusative: B. G. i and ii, J. L. Phillips; iii and iv, W. L. Carr;
Cat. i-iii and Aen. i-iii, W. L. Hartman; Cat. iv, Pomp., and Arch.,
and Aen. iv-vi, A-. Muntsch.

Ablative and Locative: B. G. i and ii, J. L. Phillips; iii and iv,
W. L. Carr; Cat. i-iv, H. F. Taylor; Pomp., Arch., and Aen. v, vi,
H. Preble; Aen. i-iv, L. Byrne.

Tenses: Caesar, A. T. Walker; Cicero, Martha Whitney and
A. T. Walker; Vergil, E. W. Murray and A. T. Walker.

Independent Clauses: Caesar, W. L. Carr and L. Byrne; Cat. i
and Arch., Kate Healy; Cat. ii-iv, Cornelia Raymond; Pomp.
and Arch., Augusta J. Boone; Aen. i-iv, Elizabeth M. Perkins; v,
J. A. Peters; vi, Mabel C. Hawes.

Substantive Clauses: Caesar, W. L. Carr and L. Byrne; Cat. i,
Pomp., and Aen. i-v, A. E. Bartlett; Cat. ii-iv and Arch., Mary L.
Miner; Aen. vi, Elizabeth M. Perkins.

Relative Clauses: Caesar, W. L. Carr and L. Byrne; Cicero, J. F.
Hall; Aen. i, ii, iv, v, Mary R. Fitzpatrick; ii, v, vi, W. F. Dales; iii,
E. H. Atherton; iv, W. W. King.

Adverbial Clauses — Miscellaneous: B. G. i, iii, iv, W. L. Carr and
L. Byrne; ii and Pomp., G. A. Whipple; Cat. i, ii, iv, and Arch.,
A. B. Babbitt; Cat. iii, Virginia Alexander; Vergil, Elizabeth M.
Perkins.

Purpose and Result: B. G. i, Letta Brock; ii-iv, W. L. Carr and
L. Byrne; Cat. i, ii, iv, Pomp., and Arch., Emma K. Clark; Cat. iii,

PREFACE

Mildred Dean; Aen. i, Florence Backus; i-v, A. Z. Hartman; vi,
H. D. Cannon.

Cww-Clauses: Caesar, W. L. Carr and L. Byrne; Cat. i-iv, C. C.
Cobb; Pomp, and Arch., Julia E. Winslow; Vergil, J. Charles.

Time and Proviso: Caesar, W. L. Carr and L. Byrne; Cat. i, iii,
Iv, Pomp., and Arch., Louise M. Breitenbach; Cat. ii, E. L. Firidley;
Vergil, Alice M. Donnelly.

Cause and Concession: B. G. i, iii, iv, W. L. Carr and L. Byrne:
ii, Grace M. Warner; Cat. i, ii, iv, A. B. Babbitt; iii, Zina D. Snyder;
Pomp., Arch., and Aen. ii, iv, E. W. Given; Aen. i, iii, R. H. Tanner;
v, vi, Olive B. Catlin.

Conditions and Comparison: Caesar, W. L. Carr and L. Byrne;
Cat. i, iii, iv, Pomp., Arch., and Aen. ii, Lizzie C. Smith; Cat. ii, F. O.
Bates; Aen. i, iii, iv, vi, Nettie Fillmore; v, A. S. Rainey.

Infinitives, Participles, Gerund, and Supine: L. Byrne.

NOTE ON REVISED EDITION

This revision has given an opportunity to bring the terminology
into closer harmony with that of the Report of the Joint Committee on
Grammatical Nomenclature. Advantage has been taken of the pub-
lished criticisms of the first edition to make a number of corrections and
improvements; I refer particularly to Professor Hale's review in the
April, 1910, School Review. Professor Hale has also been kind enough
to make a number of other suggestions personally, but he is in no way
responsible for the defects in plan or execution which still appear. The
body of statistics remains substantially as in the first edition ; the " text "
of interpretative comment has been entirely rewritten, and one new table
and three illustrative diagrams have been introduced. Thanks are due
Professor F. N. Freeman for criticizing the analysis of the reading process.

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION . ... i

Why an Investigation of This Kind Is Needed I

Why Syntax Is Studied . . ' . . 2

The Nature of the Reading Process 5

What Syntax Should Be Studied 12

THE STATISTICS or SYNTAX IN HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN 13

Detailed Statistics of Constructions and Their Occurrences . . 14

Explanation of Categories Employed; Further Notes on Usage . 19

THE USE OF STATISTICAL EVIDENCE IN CURRICULUM-MAKING ... 26

The Bearing of Statistics on the Selection of Material . . . 26
The Bearing of Statistics on the Amount of Material . . . .31

The Bearing of Statistics on the Arrangement of Material ... 34

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES CLASSIFIED UNDER GRAMMATICAL HEADINGS 41

THE SAME EXAMPLES IN THEIR ORDER OF OCCURRENCE IN THE TEXTS 51

INTRODUCTION
WHY AN INVESTIGATION OF THIS KIND IS NEEDED

The teaching of Latin syntax in high schools has ordinarily been
uncritical and dependent on unquestioned acceptance of tradition.
This is true as regards the amount of syntax taught, the common idea
being that a very large portion of the material which has been organized
into recognized categories in books on grammar must be assimilated by
pupils of high-school age; that Latin study cannot reach a successful
issue unless this is done. A good illustration of this attitude is found
in the case of many teachers who, after once being induced to employ
one of the briefer grammars for high-school work, later insist on a return
to one of the larger books and the rejection of a short grammar on the
ground that it contains insufficient material to meet the needs of high-
school teaching.

Uncritical procedure is shown also in particular selection of topics.
Not only are very rare subjects treated at length, but in some cases
subjects which occur nowhere at all in high-school reading. And the
situation is similar as regards unintelligent arrangement of material.
Topics which an investigation would show ought not to be taught earlier
than the third year, so that they might be taken up at the time when
there is an actual need of them, are, in fact, included in the work of the
second year or the first year, and for no known or ascertainable reason.

Such unscientific hit or miss might be explained in the case of high-
school teaching by attributing it to the low grade of ability and the
insufficient training of a part of the teaching population. But until
recently even graver defects seem to have been present in the work of the
more expert few who prepare our college-entrance examination papers.

Commenting on these, Professor Hale points out numerous instances
in which the examinations call for words and constructions that are rare
or even unknown in the high-school reading. He sums up by saying:
"We have found them to be, as a whole, not very carefully planned
.... they call for words that are not common, and constructions that
are not common, and they leave many common constructions uncalled
for."1

1 "Latin Composition in the High School," School Review, XVIII (April, 1910),
240; 231 ff.

2 .: ^ ^SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

However, the more recent college-entrance examination papers are
not open to these objections; in the questions of 1911 to 1915 the
subject-matter appears to be in conformity with the suggestions of this
book, except that knowledge of the different forms of conditional sen-
tences is assumed in the second year.1

Now the chief criticism of Latin and Greek studies is not that they
are without value ; it would be a rash critic who would deny value to
Latin or in fact to any subject in the curriculum. The main charge
is that they are too costly, and more specifically that the process of
teaching them is inefficient and wasteful. Viscount Bryce says that

"languages in general have too often been badly taught The

results have accordingly been disappointing and out of proportion to the
time and labor spent."2

Keller in his paper on "The Case of Greek" says, "The comparative
cost is exorbitant and well-nigh prohibitive. The vital question is:
Can it be lowered ? . . . . That which is most in the eyes of adverse opin-
ion .... is .... the unnecessary and unessential."3 And President
Butler, while advocating classical studies, alludes in his Function of the
Secondary School to "bad and wasteful methods of classical teaching,
much of it done under the guise of thoroughness."

Scientific examination and evaluation of the materials of instruction
readily show us how we can eliminate waste, reduce exorbitant cost, and
promote efficiency. Professor Lodge's Vocabulary reveals that 42 per
cent of the words are used 93 f$ per cent of the time, so that by concen-
trating on these words we may presumably accomplish 93 T5^ per cent of
certain results with 42 per cent of the labor and time that would be
expended in ordinary undirected effort. It is with a view to the pos-
sibility of similar savings in the field of grammar study that this book
has been prepared.

WHY SYNTAX IS STUDIED

Before proceeding to the examination of the syntax material it is
desirable to set forth briefly the reasons why syntax should be studied
at all — the real aims in studying it. And as a preliminary to this we
naturally come upon the inquiry as to what are the aims of Latin study

1 Examination Questions in Latin and Greek, 1911-15, College Entrance Examina-
tion Board, pp. 20, 21, 22.

2 The Worth of Ancient Literature to the Modern World, p. 4.

3 Atlantic Monthly, June, 1908.

INTRODUCTION 3

itself, both the study considered generally and the study on the high-
school plane.

I doubt that we are prepared to accept any stereotyped and uniform
statement of the aims of classical studies, but some denning of aims we
must have if we are to arrive anywhere. In a subject in which broad
•and spiritual values are among the ultimate motives it may be best to
enumerate a number of aims and to try to organize these coherently
rather than to limit our recognized purpose to a narrow pathway, as
might be done in the case of a vocational subject. Somewhere in the
organized plurality of aims each one may find those which seem largest
to him. Hence I venture the following as a rather wide, inclusive list
of the aims of Latin study in general; the supposition is that high-school
Latin study shares in some or all of these aims either immediately or
indirectly :

1 . To come into intimate touch with the life and civilization of what
we call the ancient world, more strictly the Graeco-Roman world. This
may be conceived as worth while from two points of view:

a) For purposes of comparison the Graeco-Roman world represents
that civilization immediately preceding our own, and although we know
of others, e.g., in Egypt, in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, in the Aegean
are'a, in India, and in China, it is the only other one indigenous to the
West, known to us in plentiful detail, and capable of first-hand study
by any but specialists. Its remains are literally strewn at our feet, and
the educated of all ages have known something of it, even though they
gave it no deliberate study.

b) As a basis for understanding the genesis of our present civiliza-
tion we naturally go back to that empire which, fallen and dis-
membered, has been the substratum from which the modern nations
have arisen.

2. First-hand introduction to the literature of this ancient world:

a) For its intrinsic value. This would apply in higher degree to
Greek, perhaps, but no one denies that the Latin product is one of the
great literatures. It may be noted in passing that one who studies
Latin literature alone intercepts much that is Greek, for Greece is the
main source of Latin culture on the aesthetic side.

b) For its relation to modern literatures. Anyone desiring more
than a superficial acquaintance with one or more modern literatures is
under the necessity of giving some attention to the Greek and Latin
literatures which have so profoundly influenced them.

3. To contribute to one's knowledge of other languages:

4 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

a) Especially the mother-tongue itself. Since over half the English
vocabulary is Latin it is evident that proper study of the Latin element
is capable of greatly enriching one's appreciation of his native speech.

b) Also as a contribution to the understanding of the Romance
languages.

c) As an influence on language sense and grasp of language prin-
ciples in general. This value can be realized in connection with the
study of any foreign language, but perhaps best in that of a language
which is highly inflected. In this respect Greek and Sanskrit would be
superior.

Some will feel lonesome without adding a fourth aim — "Disciplinary
values." Personally I should not do so. The fact that these have been
so frequently stressed has unfortunately served to obscure or conceal
the cultural value of the study and its largest and most vital significance.
If any subject has worth as a discipline, so much the better; but no one
can justify the inclusion of a study in the curriculum on disciplinary
grounds alone, because it would obviously be more profitable to teach a
valuable subject in such a way as to make it good discipline than to teach
an otherwise valueless one for the sake of the resulting discipline. Hence
the values inherent in the content of a study are ordinarily the ones
which should be stressed and on the basis of which a subject should be
selected or rejected.

I shall not attempt to demonstrate how far the aims mentioned really
apply to the high-school Latin situation. It would take more space and
exact knowledge than I have available. It will serve the purpose at hand
if I proceed to the question as to what is the central and unifying aim
which may serve as the means of correlating and organizing the different
classes of aims enumerated. I think few will seriously dispute that this
central aim is to be found in learning to read and in reading the Latin
itself; I mean this in a broad way to include the process which is, in a
strict sense, reading, that is, reading the Latin as Latin, just as one reads
an English book as English, and also to include the process which some
say is all that we can ever attain, the turning of the Latin into English
through translation. Both are methods of deriving meaning from
original Latin texts, and I need not here stop to debate their relative
merits. Whether either one or both of these methods are employed, the
learning to read and the reading act constitute the fundamental and
central process; to perform this act successfully is our central aim, with
which we connect our other aims, according to our present conception of
Latin study. We use original text rather than ready-made translation,

INTRODUCTION 5

because we thereby get a more intimate contact with the ancient world,
with ancient literature, with the language itself, with our own language.
It is because reading is the central aim that we have been willing to pay
the undeniably high price of its acquisition. That it is the central aim
needs no further argument than to point out that if reading with its
corollaries and consequences is not the chief aim we are making a colossal
blunder in spending so much time, energy, and money in its pursuit.

The place of syntax in the educational plan is simply and wholly
subsidiary to that of reading. Absence of -clearly denned aim has often
resulted in allowing syntax to usurp the chief place, with Latin literature
treated merely as a means for building up and illustrating a complete
system of grammar. Intelligent criticism has repeatedly pointed out
the error, the deficient sense of proportion. President Butler in the
essay already quoted asserts that " wearisome grammatical drill and
tedious reiteration of details relatively of little value, save in so far as
these are absolutely necessary to enable the pupil to read intelligently,
are out of place in secondary education." Viscount Bryce says that
" the despotism of a purely grammatical study of the ancient languages
and authors needed to be overthrown."1 Syntax is studied because the
reading process, from its nature, depends upon, and involves the use of,
vocabulary and syntax.

We may next consider briefly the relation of reading ability to the
knowledge and use of syntax. To do this we need to observe how Latin
reading is done.-

THE NATURE OF THE READING PROCESS

At the outset we should recognize that reading is not a single fixed
type of process. Even when we exclude faulty or incorrect methods
and restrict it to legitimate forms of procedure we find that there is some
variety. Reading may occur at different levels as regards the amount
of previously acquired knowledge of words and grammar available for
use. Further there are different stages of reading power in the matter
of speed and facility, and the process as carried on at one speed is not
identical with the process as carried on at another. Moreover, the
translating act is not the same as reading proper, though they have
important elements in common.

I shall first try to describe the reading of a foreign language, such as
Latin, at its lowest, or at least at a very low, level. This description and

1 Op. cil., p. 4.

6 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

those which follow are not based on specific experiment. They recount
what, in a general way, careful examination, in the absence of controlled
experiment, would lead us to believe occurs. At a low level we may
imagine that a student knows none of the foreign words and none of the
grammar. He takes up a text and proceeds to read. Some very
important things he does know:1 he knows that he is dealing with written
language, with an inflected language in which the inflections as well as
the word roots have meanings. He knows what language it is and the
sources to which he can go to secure any information he needs about the
words or their forms. If it is Latin he knows the general significance of
all the letter symbols. Then how does he proceed with his reading ?
He takes the words just as they come, one after the other. Each word
he looks up in a vocabulary or dictionary to ascertain its possible word
meanings; for each word he consults his grammar to find out the pos-
sible meanings of the form of the word, that is, the syntactical meanings.
He does not decide between the different possibilities, but holds judg-
ment in abeyance until further evidence is found in the words that follow.
As some critical word is reached he is able to end his suspense, complete
his judgment, and decide definitely on the specific word and form mean-
ings to be assigned to this word and to all the words preceding. Such a
critical word may be the last word in a sentence, or at least the last in
a clause or phrase ; there is and should be doubt as to precise meanings
until the critical word is reached; many words become critical for the
determination of the meanings of individual forms preceding, even if they
do not resolve the suspense regarding whole clauses. Of course, as has
been noted, the successive pieces of evidence have both a backward-
and a forward-looking influence. A word may be critical in helping to
decide between possible antecedent meanings held in suspense to this
point, and it may be critical in deciding between possible subsequent
meanings when their symbols are later reached. Only the first word is
limited to a forward reference, or perhaps we should say "forward con-
trol," and only the final word to one that is backward. When such a
critical final word is reached, it marks the close of a grammatical or
syntactical unit, a unit of speech, a sentence, or at least a " sub-sentence,"

1 In a still lower stage we may picture the savant who deciphers a previously
unknown tongue, having no dictionaries or grammars to which he can go, not knowing
whether it is an inflected language or anything about its inflections if it have any, and
not even knowing any phonetic or other significance for a single letter. But even in
such a case he knows a very important fact, viz., that he is dealing with a language
which expresses meanings.

INTRODUCTION 7

if we may use the expression. A word with forward reference only, or
rather one which has no backward reference (or control), similarly marks
the beginning of a speech unit or sentence.

As we shall see presently, the steps in "high-level" reading, provided
it is slow and deliberate, would be the same as those described here for
the low level, except that the student would know all the possibilities
of word meaning and syntax meaning in advance. Instead of consulting
dictionary and grammar he would merely resort to the association centers
of his brain.

Let us illustrate by taking a concrete passage. In the pro M.
Mar cello we read:

Quare omnes te, qui haec salva esse volumus, et hortamur et obsecramur,
ut vitae tuae et saluti consulas, omnesque tibi (lit pro aliis etiam loquar, quod
de me ipse sentio), quoniam subesse aliquid putas, quod cavendum sit, non
modo excubias et custodias, sed etiam laterum nostrorum oppositus et corporum
pollicemur.

It is evident that one who reads the words in the order in which they
come1 will hold the possible meanings of omnes in suspense until he
reaches volumus before making his decision, and similarly will not decide
between the meanings of te until he reaches hortamur; qui will not be
decided until reaching volumus, haec until esse, the first et until hortamur;
vitae is partially decided by tuae, more fully by saluti, and completely
when consulas is reached; the second omnes is not fully decided until
pollicemur; tibi is not decided until pollicemur, ut until loquar, quod until
sentio, ipse until sentio, subesse until putas, quod until sit, excubias and
custodias until pollicemur, laterum until oppositus, oppositus until pollice-
mur. Backward references or controls are salvo decided by haec, volumus
by qui, the second et by the first et and hortamur, tuae by vitae, aliis by
pro, loquar by ut, me by de, aliquid by subesse, putas by quoniam, quod by
aliquid, cavendum sit by quod, nostrorum by laterum, corporum by oppo-
situs.

Returning to our analysis of reading on the low level, we may dis-
tinguish four steps occurring on meeting any typical (i.e., medial) word:

A. Looking up

1 . The possible word meanings

2. The possible form meanings (syntax)

1 This is the only legitimate reading, inasmuch as it is the author's right, as an
artist, to decide the order in which his symbols will be presented and his meanings
revealed, and to arrange such effects of grammatical and rhetorical suspense as he
desires. See Hale, The Art of Reading Latin.

8 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

C. Selecting the particular meanings that seem feasible by consider-
ing the total import of the passage up to this point

D. Reconsidering or deciding on doubtful meanings of earlier words
. and forms now made clear by the evidence presented by this word.

E. Holding the final choice of meanings still in suspense until a later
word or words furnish the decisive evidence

In the case of an initial word step D does not occur, and we have only
A, C, and E ; C is present because the context meaning carried over from
earlier sentences helps to eliminate some of the formal possibilities.
In the case of a final word step E is absent, leaving A, C, and D. The
steps are not necessarily chronological as here arranged; apparently
either D or C may precede the other, or the two may be an interrelated
complex with several reciprocal movements.

We may now consider the reading process on a high level, in which
the student has no need of dictionary or grammar, but as a result of his
previous experience already knows all the possibilities of word and form
meaning. We shall assume, however, at this point in the description
that he reads slowly and deliberately, one word at a time; later we shall
note differences involved in rapid reading. In the case suggested step
A disappears. Instead we have substituted:

B. i. The previous learning or memorizing of

a) Word roots in association with their meanings

b) Word forms in association with their meanings (syntax)

2. The recognition of

a) Word roots

b) Word forms

3. The recall of

a) Associated root meanings

b) Associated form meanings (syntax)

The other steps, C, D, and E, are the same as in the case of reading on
the lower level.

Apparently neither A nor B is an absolutely essential element of the
reading process; either may be absent provided one of the two is present.
C, D, and E are essential in all reading so far as we have examined it.
Reading which employs words and forms looked up in reference books is
entitled to be called reading, as well as that which employs words and
forms previously memorized. There is a difference in degree, in facility,
but both are reading.

The actual reading of most students is neither on the lower level nor
on the high level as we have described them, but on some intermediate

INTRODUCTION 9

level between the two. The essential elements C, D, and E remain con-
stant, while the A and B elements alternate; at times the student is
employing what he has previously learned of the word and form meetings;
at times his previously acquired knowledge proves inadequate, and he
goes to his reference books for additional information.

But does a student actually exhaust all the possibilities in the way
of meanings and partial meanings, and thus finally arrive at the ac-
cepted solution ? As a matter of fact he does not usually do so. The
description rather represents the list of things he can do and some of
which he must do — all of which he may do in case of need. The number
of separate inferences made will vary with the difficulty of the material.
It is when the real meaning is obscure and difficult to reach that all pos-
sible hypotheses are tried out; in easy passages the first surmise may
hold good to the end.

It is important to note also that the student need not and does not
dig out of a reference book all the facts of meaning which he needs and
with which his previously acquired knowledge fails to supply him. The
general context enables him to infer many meanings for which he has no
immediate evidence; the same is true, of course, in reading an English
book. The step taken here is not essentially different from the C and D
described above; it is still a selection of meanings on the basis of avail-
able evidence, in this case less complete, but still sufficient to serve as
a clew.

So far we have discussed reading on different levels as regards the
previously acquired knowledge employed, assuming in each case that we
have to do with simple one-word-at-a-time reading. We may next con-
sider different stages as regards facility or speed. As a matter of analysis
the simplest case is that in which the student dwells on each word sepa-
rately. But with increasing knowledge and practice, speed increases, and
some qualitative changes seem to occur in addition to the mere increase
in amount of ground covered in a given time. Experiments with English
reading, as is well known, have shown that the rapid reader does not
dwell on the separate words, so far as his vision is concerned. It is well
to remember that no matter how fast he is he still reads his text in
the order in which the author wrote it. He does not jump from the
beginning of the sentence to the end, and then back to the middle, as in a
former day in Latin classrooms. But the skilled reader of English moves
his eyes in a series of forward jumps, and in each pause between jumps his
eyes dwell on a range of several words at one time; the number of words
seen simultaneously is, however, not very large; even in the case of an

10 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

unusually rapid reader of English it does not appear to be more than five
or six words. The duration of such an eye pause is not far from a half-
second, or in very rapid reading may approach one-fourth of a second.
In the group of words seen at one time the eye does not ordinarily move
back and forth considering first one word and then another ; if anything
of this sort occurs it is an interruption of the normal course of the reading.
The eye remains stationary during the brief pause, and sees no words
during the rapid movement. The absence of back-and-forth eye move-
ment during a pause would not preclude the possibility of separate fixa-
tions of attention on different details within the word group. And in
difficult passages the ordinary continuous process is interrupted, and the
eye jumps back to an earlier point and reads the Same groups again,
sometimes several times, until apprehension is attained. As the student
develops speed in Latin reading we have no reason to doubt that the
physiology of the eye movements becomes similar to that found in Eng-
lish reading, and that words come to be seen in groups rather than singly.
In the nature of the case the number of words actually seen would tend
to be about the same, but if the rate of reading is slower in Latin than in
English the duration of each pause tends to be greater, allowing a longer
time for the mind to assimilate the new impressions and realize their
significance. Seeing whole groups of words at a time makes it possible
to short-circuit the process by omitting many inferences that would
follow from the evidence presented by the individual words of the group
perceived one at a time. It is the evidence of the complete group that
is utilized, though it is true that this may require some analysis and
dwelling on separate details. In the case of a novice a long pause is
coincident with a short span; a beginner's groups consist usually of a
single word ; as there are more difficult passages in Latin than in English,
and in fact the entire text may be difficult, there is a more frequent going
back and starting over, visually as well as mentally, as anyone may
verify from his own reading.

To sum up, we may think of reading as proceeding on the basis of a
partial previous knowledge of the words and syntax involved. On the
one hand we should not ordinarily expect to find a complete preliminary
acquaintance or a complete absence of such knowledge. The reader
does not jump about from one part of the sentence to another at random,
though he does, when in difficulty, jump backward and take a fresh
start. This backward jump may be purely mental in the case of a skilled
reader, but one less skilled moves his eyes back as well. A slow reader
fixes both vision and attention on one word at a time ; for a more skilled

INTRODUCTION 31

and rapid reader the visual unit of progress is a small group of words
rather than a single word. The first large step in the procedure is either
the recognition of form and recall of associated meanings, or else, as a
substitute, the search for similar information in reference books. The
essential steps in the process are the forming of hypotheses as to the
details of meaning, suspense during the acquiring of added evidence,
and the final judgment as to the combined and detailed meaning. Not
all the possible hypotheses are formed except in passages of unusual
difficulty. As one develops skill through practice he comes to have
more or less of what the mathematicians call intuition in the situations
presented by the language; he acquires an adeptness in getting on the
right track with a minimum number of hypotheses, a minimum of lost
motion. Probably the practiced reader seldom actually carries along
in suspense a series of parallel interpretations awaiting the critical word ;
rather he always seizes on a preferred meaning, tentatively entertained,
and as fast as new evidence appears he makes rejections of the untenable
and substitutions of corrected meanings so rapidly as to be almost if not
quite unaware of these swift mental gymnastics. The hypotheses are
in some cases based on the concrete evidence of known forms and words,
in some cases on the general drift of the context, which readily leaps gaps
in knowledge if these be not too wide. The power to infer successfully
from incomplete evidence is a desirable one to cultivate, and its practice
should not be discouraged.

I cannot take space to describe fully the translation process as dis-
tinguished from the reading process. The two are not the same, and
skill in one is not necessarily accompanied by skill in the other; in fact
one tends to inhibit the other. What they have in common, however,
greatly exceeds their divergence. In my opinion translation should only
follow reading. The meaning of a sentence and its details should have
been grasped before making an attempt to set forth the ideas in English.
It is an unsound procedure to begin by translating portions of the sen-
tence, and to arrive at the author's thought only by piecing together
the fragments of English. It is unsound because such a process does
not involve reading the Latin at all, it merely involves reading some
crude English phrases; instead of proceeding to an English version by
this method it would be preferable to go at once to the Loeb or similar
translations and secure a superior rendering. If we assume that the
reading process is to precede translation, the latter appears merely as a
supplementary step; for our purposes it is unnecessary to try to extend
analysis beyond the completion of the reading act.

12 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

Naturally we have confined the discussion of reading to the mechanics
of the process. When reading skill is developed and is carried on without
conscious difficulty it is possible for the attention to be largely disengaged
from the reading act, and for the mind to be concerned with the larger
implications of the author's thought, with literary appreciation, and with
historical speculation. But all this is obviously dependent on the
ability to read.

The analysis of the reading process has revealed, I hope, what part
a knowledge of syntax plays in reading, and what the real purpose in
studying syntax is. We find that knowledge of vocabulary and knowl-
edge of syntax are employed in essentially the same way, although the
types of meaning conveyed by root and inflection are usually different.
If reading is to occur there must be some acquaintance with syntax,
either acquaintance formed on the spot or acquaintance previously
gained. We have seen that it is not necessary to have a complete
knowledge of words and constructions before beginning to read. We
do not have this in the mother-tongue, and yet we manage to read suc-
cessfully and extensively.

WHAT SYNTAX SHOULD BE STUDIED

An important educational question is, How much syntax and what
syntax should be studied with a view to promoting reading power ? If
we make a full study of all the grammatical facts it will completely fill
the four years of high-schgol Latin and more, and will leave no room for
reading at all. It is then a nice question of judgment to decide the pro-
portion of time which shall be given to studying syntax as preparation
for reading, and the proportion which shall be devoted to the reading
itself; a supplementary judgment is needed to decide what syntax
topics shall be taken up in the time allotted. This book does not under-
take to furnish final answers to these questions, but it does aim to give
an exposition of the facts of frequency in syntax usage so that any Latin
department can formulate its own answer on a basis of scientific pro-
decure rather than of random guesswork or mere chance.

THE STATISTICS OF SYNTAX IN HIGH-SCHOOL

LATIN

If we wish to get the facts which will enable us to judge intelligently
as to the amount of syntax to be studied, the topics to be included, and
their arrangement, we must investigate by statistical methods the
relative and absolute frequency of occurrence of the different construc-
tions. Table I presents the results of such an investigation.

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

pKS

00 ^ H ^ ~ ^ 0

O CM

7 ± >
O ON PO ON O »0 ON tOO
POlOPOt^O O t^H ,O

Tj- M PO CM M M M'

. ^> \^

vo

'*oi

00 10 O 10 O POOO M CNOO O M POO « O

OO Tf ON IO PO Tf Tf M

00 CM rs.

0000 ONO f^.'frTj-CMO
to PO IO ^ <N) t^ CM TfO

M MM

PO H

CO

°SS

O PO ON r^co OPO^OPOOWWMOH

CO H t>~ <N

O IOO ioO ONiOONO
t^O O t^. 10 M co

M M

00 Tf CM M
CO 1O M

M

JBS3BJ

TfH ONt^MCMOCMCOPOOOMMOH
O O CO 10 «>. Tf

PO t^ M
H

OO O rh Tf PO <M O ^HO
O 10 t^-O CM M 10 POI
M

Tf M O CO

M

u-«^

r^»\O GO H

to H

<N PO PO H

00 00 H CM

A 'U3V

d M o* vo W 10 04 O fO MOO to O O O

fO Tf ro H H
IO M

•^- CM O) M

to

Al 'W9K

0 00 t^O POPONOOTj-OOTtOOO

00 PO ON M
PO

CN H M H

O O M H
M M

III 'U3V

IOCM OONPOCMOM^-MOOOOOO

O PO CM H M
Tf M

Tf ONO 10 Tj-O PO t^ IO

rl- ON O ON

rj- M

r»v

z~> *

00 f^ PO O O N too O

M Tj- PO M M

ON IO O IO
M CM

to

{;8j3A

O M* r^- to POOO CMQPOOOOOOWO

t--» PO O M M M

,' Tf ist O-j >O t^, IOOO ON vi
CN CM CM M M?

§-HVO

w

to PO to to POOO POMTj-Q.OOOOOO

CM M

MlOM(NHMHt^.O

IOO O M
M

*-*

t^. to M Tfroo too H 00 O O O O O O O

00 CM O 10 CM
10 CM

i^N ^W M^^E*0

PO

MTO

l^ PO Tj- CM POO Tt-OOMOONMOO

CM M

ON 1000 CM t^ CO O co O

10 ON O O

M

»! TO

T^-O HOOONTt"OWOOOOOOO

8MOO ONMO O POO
M CM M

O CM CM O

M

HTO

CM

1000 O PO

ON

M

nuajr)

t^ ON Tj- ON t-O lOHTfCNOCMOOOO
CM M

« PO t-» ONO O M r^ O

M M M

PO ON O PO

A!

00 M MO >OO MM«OOOMOOO
M 00 CM CM M

t>.MO IOIOCMO ONO
W M M M

§,<-<>"

m

r**» O PO ^ ON CMOOnOOOOOOO

t^ IO M M W M
CM M

800 Ooo >OO 10100
M M

10 r>. O H

«

M O O CM PO ON t*^ OOOOOOCMOO

CM M

MM' CM

CM r^ o O

CO

«-«.,

M M

M M M M M M

to

™.D!

CM M CM Tf
<N M

« M M M

1

. ....

'.'.'•£

: : : ': : : : : : J : : . :S

g „ I I '. ^
I '. !'II!!>^)cj<j '"S

^ «i • i ^

• '3

« : ^oi :j| ilj^l^^

r;ww'35-^>^o- ' 2 fl §.H •»* -^"'^

iSiUittiMifiiii

|o^OP^SQ>^^^<i.§>-a

^>o >-» ^r

&~*t*S ~* -1

ill!

STATISTICS

pJOiL

^* to O O co *O r*» d H ^J-00 WOO ^-00 cs MO ^fO <3"d OVQO O^^OOO
1000 w M TJ-OO vO oo M w t^QO ro cooo r^ON QvWiowioco

rOOO

pUUI0

M M M M M

"

n8J3A

CO M CO <*O CO W MM \O

oo t^

»0 M

T5g

O O O to t^oo 10 O O O^oo 10 cs M -O O IN-O 10 O ^0 M w C4 w 10
M 1%. O O t^» O cs W fo co O M ^* O\ w 0s 00 *O C<

O N

0* M"

"SS

""°?r^s ^??^^^^"t'0-3?s-10

TtOO
ON Cl

IA -U9V

SQ M 00 ^" M T^ 0* CO M CO Cl M M M
M M

A -tt^F

O O 00 W M O 1000 O^O^ONMONMTj-LoOOO1^ t^.00 O O co

\O C^IOVOM ^- M^-M M TfCO^ M
M M

M.»K

MOM O *3" C^ t"-* O M ^" CS CO W CO^O O^ M O CO O O O 00 C1! SO CO M
H

HI ^uay

H

ii-uyy

H

j;2j3A

O O CO to\O co-M rf r^* Qv O co ^ COOO lOOOvOMOoOO^ cooO M

rj- CO^O ^O" OO ^" M M Cl O

1

•qy* V

^ ^" C*4 CO M \O MM C< M \O M

•»»*

00 *O vO t^^ ^O ON W M W W ^ co ^J" co M

M M

!

*TK>

in in M r** ^fw MCO

3

ttw

WCOO rococo WM MCSCOMM

g

BW

i2g

Al

M in <^O M C« t^-MCIMOlM MtOCM
MM M

H!

O incO t^ M in MMMM MCSVOMM

;

'

ii

MM j

«-<*•,

M O >OO O M •* .. M M N M ' MTfPOMM
M

SSy

MOO ONOO OOON MC»iOOO O WNONQN^MON rOO 10 O fO
O O0l~«. t^ M IDWMM MVOCOWM

M

• ^ • •

.. oj c • : I

i.r§. | i i i ij-i ;li i ;i : i i ; ; i

: 1

^•al :2 :§ :« ; : :d : : : :| ^ : i i : : :» :

of fc

T3 -O

16

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

1O Tf ^J- <N N W <N VO t-»

N H t^ rj-

00 ON <T>

vo M O GO vC

M M 04 M

(N W O N CO

O vO O «. O O

A 'U3Y

\O

u -MJK

H O O O M r^OOOfOiOWNOrfOfOOMOO M-^OOOO
^o ^

O O O O O O

OO««H^Tj-OfOOr<2OOOO OeoOOO O{i*3^

O O O O M

r^OOONOOONOnOWOO

M e» co M

OJ3JQ

OOH OCONOO»Or-.

n

O N M~O bo O O O O O O O

Contr. fact
DEPENDEN
Indicative.
Imperative
noli

V ~ •» O

;iiillllllllillil!ll

STATISTICS

puiuy

00 00 00 r^ O

±

u-s co^

MMOMQW1OCSO MOOOOOOr^.TfCOO'OMTt'Ti-WTfMvOWlOt^VO

O co H OO co >O cooO M N C* r^

O OO O CO *O •**• CO N M MIOMMMvO'OTj- t^-OO W O >O\O M VO ^- O IO M
O4 O M C^ ^" COO O^ M COOO d M M C< CO *O M

^" ^

w O M O 0s O co M O O t*"* co t^ M ^ r^ O t^oo c* M M t^^ O ^ O O <O O^ VQ

Tf MM

IA -ivy % °

A -uay

GO OMQMOOMO ^" co O O M O ^ M O t^» O M O O ^i" O C* O 10 co M
AI

~ O vO O

in

d^co co
\o ^ ^

i -u>y

^O O O O OO cs ^~ O O ^" co O^ W O M M O Is** co 0s O O O 1O O M O t^» t>* co

VO MM

d co co co MM

M

w.-r-^ ^

O^b O O r^ M o O O
H -PD

' H O H O ^o co *-O O O ^O r^-O t^* o ^ w w d to co o< o M vO H 00 M oo O^ ci

'1°J XO

OOC^OOOOMOO
W M cs

M
III °0 C

O O vO
II

^O OOOOt^ONOO
OOOOOOxOOMO

oo

JBS3E3

5

^pLnf^H PnU U U

i8

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

pffig

CO M Tj- CO

W 00 <N M" H

HH

co r^ O looo looo

ONOO CO M O >O PJ
VO CO CS M M

00 vO

^

N vO 00 co

M

OO >O N IOOO 1O IO CO >O M

00 N M O VO W M
0) HH H

M o O M vo r-^ r-»

ONVO CO N M N
10 CN

HH

CN M

°s

MH$HH

0 ON^

r^. O O O w oo ON

10 ro M O 00 •<*

CO H

O N

"K5

HH HH HH M
CO ON «

HH

vO l~^O CO<NOO voO ^fO
10 O ONVO M
co *O

»o r>. O -<fr O O N

^t- ON OC IO IO

vO co

U -U3V

O M O M

CJ IOQOO_0 M COO t^.M

r^ •* 10 o O TJ- oo

M CS

O O

, -U3V

M M M M

M C4

o o

A I 'M3J.'

O N co O

M Tfr M t>-VO ON M O M O

M co M rf

ON •* t^ O »o O r^
00 r-

M M

Ill -U3V

O O O N

M M N CO

ON N TJ- HH Q\ IO M
10 0
M

O Tj"

ir*>r

0 co •* O

M

vOvOMHcoOOQOO

HH ^- M CO M

ONOO 00 O COO >0
00^

1 -MJK

O O M O

v6 coO •* 't>- M O <O O co

M ^ M CS

COOO CO O N O W

M M

O co

fir

O O co M

HH CO VO

00 M O M HH O <N

CO HH HH HH

o o

•(ftuoj

O M t^. W

H

lOOOvO^l-coOOOO

M cs O 10 O 00 •*

MO CO CO W
HH

o «

A,W

O 0 N O

lOOOOOvOOOOO

•* M 10

ON Tf O O M co N
10 MM

0 0

in -;°^

O O vO vO

°N°00«SHH"^0000

10 ON O M W ON CO
^ M

o o

nw

O O <N O

IOMOONOOOOOO

»0 M t>.

co t^ O co COOO co

M Tf- M

o o

oL?g

M O Tf «

McoOOWNOOOO

M IO M VO

M r>. O O >o O »o

o o

A;

10 O 10 rf

lOioO COM ON^O O O

M vO cooO

ON ON O O ^ M VO

HH HH

in

HH

^^ °vo'Mvo'0 ° ^"°

l^ N O M HH ON ON

HH

HH HH

u

N

00 O O 00 covO O O W O

10 M HH

N 00 O O CO M N

IH OO HH HH M
HH

o o

«-«*•,

{>*. HH M ^

00 O O vO_vO vg^ M 0 <N o

HH ON O O 00 10 ON

M Ov M

CO O

6c-i -j

r*. O »o co

OOOONOOOOcoO

VO O\ O CO Tf TfVO

HH

M H

!'.» £

Y^ S

: : : =» : : « : : :

o

.

d'c §'S

* J d S ' : '5 o : :

i : iljt

d-g*i*S.§

<

•• • § * P : J.s.'^'rt :

3 ' -*— -I!

1

.s .s

EXPLANATION OF CATEGORIES 19

EXPLANATION OF CATEGORIES EMPLOYED;
FURTHER NOTES ON USAGE

Genitive. Subjective is included with possessive. Appositional is in-
cluded with Material ; if listed separately it would probably fall in the class of
rare constructions recommended for omission. Descriptive includes Measure.
Predicate genitives fall under other categories. Genitives with verbs are
grouped as follows: those with verbs of remembering and forgetting; with
admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio; with verbs of accusing, convicting, con-
demning, and acquitting; with miser et, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet; with
interest and refert; with verbs of plenty and want; with potior.

Dative. Reference includes Ethical and Separation. Ethical if listed sepa-
rately would fall into the category of rare constructions. Double dative is
listed under Purpose. With Direction are listed other poetical constructions,
as with verbs of contention.

Accusative. Almost the only adverbial accusatives in Caesar are multum
and nihil, so that it might be well to postpone the construction to the third
year. Two accusatives here include three groups : those with verbs of making,
choosing, calling, regarding, showing; those with verbs of asking, demanding,
teaching, and concealing; those with compound verbs. Limit without a prepo-
sition occurs only eleven times in Caesar. The figures for accusative with
preposition do not include the numerous accusatives of limit.

Ablative. Separation and Place Whence are grouped together. Material
is listed with Source. Way by Which is included under Means; Ablatives
with opus est, fretus, and nitor are counted with Means, but their occurrences
are rare in high-school prose: opus est, Caesar i, Cicero o; fretus, Caesar i,
Cicero 3; nitor, Caesar 2, Cicero o. Means does not include ablatives with
utor, fruor, etc. Attendant Circumstances is put with Manner; Accordance
with Respect. Ablative with preposition does not include those listed under
the various other heads.

Tenses, figures for indicative sequence are given for comparison. The
totals given for indicative sequence and for regular subjunctive sequence in
Caesar are those of seven books.

In estimating the number of exceptions to the rule of sequence, it would
be possible to swell the totals far beyond those given, especially by counting
the instances of repraesentatio, as Heynacher has done in his Sprachgebrauch
Caesars im "Bellum Gallicum"; it is necessary, therefore, to state the principles
that have been observed in the work on tenses.

i. The instances of repraesentatio (A.-G. 585, b, note; B. 318, though the
name is not used) have not been collected unless the repraesentatio has pre-
served a subjunctive exception of the direct form. The same desire for vivid-
ness which leads Caesar to use the historical present leads him also to retain
in many passages the present or perfect which was used by the speaker, instead
of the more sober imperfect or pluperfect which the rule of sequence demands.
Repraesentatio is no more exceptional than the historical present. Yet when

20 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

the same phenomenon occurs in indirect questions, the instances have been
counted as exceptions, because the grammars do not recognize the fact that
repraesentatio may occur in indirect questions.

2. No account has been taken of the varying sequence after historical
presents. The primary sequence is the more common, but neither is an excep-
tion. Possibly arceret, Aen. i. 300, should be counted as an exception, because
the historical present, demittit, has already been followed by a present, pateant.

3. The most difficult cases to decide are those in which the main verb is a
perfect which we feel as a present perfect. The Romans, having but one form
for the present perfect and the historical perfect,' did not discriminate sharply
between the two meanings which are so distinct to us. It is a recognized fact
that the perfect is usually followed by the secondary sequence, even when we
translate by "have"; though, of course, it may be followed by the primary;
A.-G. 485, a; B. 268, i. In collecting these examples neither the primary nor
the secondary sequence has been considered an exception after such a perfect,
but for one striking instance, see B. G. iv. i, 10.

Tenses in Result Clauses: Allen and Greenough, 485, c, reads,
"In clauses of result, the perfect subjunctive is regularly (the present rarely)
used after secondary tenses." Presumably the revisers intended to say only
that the perfect subjunctive in result clauses after secondary tenses is more
common than any other exception to sequence; though it is difficult to under-
stand why they changed "very often," of the former edition, to "regularly."
The truth of their present statement may be tested by the following statistics:
In the seven books of the Gallic War, we have found but 9 perfects in clauses
of result following secondary tenses; while Heynacher, though apparently
counting the occurrences of the construction rather than the individual verbs,
finds 112 instances of the imperfect following secondary tenses. In the entire
body of Cicero's orations, Mrs. Nellie King Cureton, a student in the Univer-
sity of Kansas, found but 61 perfects in clauses of result following secondary
tenses, as against 403 imperfects. The details of irregular result sequence in
the limited texts are: perfect indicative followed by perfect subjunctive,
Caesar i, Cicero 4; perfect infinitive (indirect discourse) followed by perfect
subjunctive, Caesar 2; perfect indicative and present subjunctive, Cicero 5,
miscellaneous, Caesar i, Cicero i.

Independent Clauses. Hortatory, Jussive, etc., are listed as Volitive.

Deliberative, following common practice, is used rather freely for
subjunctives in questions in independent clauses; many are strictly subjunc-
tives of a different type, but distinctions are difficult to make in the inter-
rogative forms.

Substantive Clauses. Ne and quominus are grouped with quin. But quin
equivalent to qui non is also found among relative clauses.

Relative Clauses. Here are placed only clauses used adjectively. So-
called clauses of Characteristic are designated as Descriptive.

Adverbial Clauses. The miscellaneous indicative clauses include those
with relative adverbs.

Purpose: The conjunctions employed in purpose clauses are as follows,

EXPLANATION OF CATEGORIES 21

the numbers signifying times used by Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil respectively:
ut, 36, 20, 14; ne, 14, n, 10; quo, 7, o, 3; qua, o, o, i; unde, o, o, 2.

Time: The moods and tenses found with cum are as follows: indicative
present, 3, 7, 24; imperfect, i, u, 2; future, o, 5, 4; perfect, 3, 15, 21; pluperfect,
4, 2, 2; future perfect, o, o, 3; subjunctive present, o, i, o; imperfect, 73, 25, 12;
perfect, o, i, o; pluperfect, 53, 25, o.

Antequam and priusquam are listed together. The moods and tenses found
with each are as follows: antequam, indicative present, o, i, i; future perfect, o, o, i;
subjunctive present, 0,0, 2; priusquam, indicative perfect, i, o, 2; subjunctive
present, 0,0, i; imperfect, 7, o, o; perfect, i, o, o; pluperfect, 2, o, i.

Dum, donee, quoad, and quam diu are listed together. The moods and tenses
with each are as follows: dum, indicative present, 7, 2, 16; imperfect, o, i, 5;
future, o, i, i; perfect, o, o, 2; future perfect, 0,0, i; subjunctive present, 0,0, i;
imperfect, 4, o, 2; perfect, i, o, o; donee, indicative perfect, o, o, 6; future, 0,0, i;
future perfect, 0,0, i; no verb expressed, 0,0, i; quoad, indicative present, o, i, o;
future, o, i o; perfect, i, 2, o; subjunctive pluperfect, i, i, o; quam diu, indi-
cative future, o, i, o; perfect, o, i, o.

Postquam, ubi, ut, and simul atque in their various forms are listed together.
The moods and tenses found with each are as follows: postquam, indicative
present, o, o, 5; perfect, 4, o, 21; posteaquam, indicative perfect, 2, i, o; pridie-
quam, o; postridiequam, o; ubi, indicative present, i, o, 13; perfect, 26, o, 24;
pluperfect, i, o, o; future perfect, 0,0, 5; ubi primum, indicative perfect, i, o, o;
ut, indicative perfect, o, i, 14; pluperfect, i, o, o; ut primum, indicative perfect,
o, i, i; simul atque, indicative perfect, o, 2, i; simul, indicative perfect, i, o, o;
quotienscumque, indicative perfect, o, i, o.

Proviso includes occurrences with dum modo in Cicero, with modo and si
modo in Vergil.

Cause: The subjunctive tenses found with cum follow: present, 2, 25, o;
imperfect, 37, 4, o; perfect, i, 5, o; pluperfect, 7, o, o.

Quod, quia, quoniam, and quando are taken together. The use of moods with
each is as follows: quod, indicative, 69, 48,0; subjunctive, 34, 16, i; quia, indi-
cative, o, 5, 5; subjunctive, o; quoniam, indicative, o, 18, 3; subjunctive, 5,
0,0; quando, indicative, o, o, 5; subjunctive, 0,0, 2.

Concession. Tametsi is listed with quamquar^; with qvamvis are licet, ut,
and ne; etsi and etiamsi are together. Moods used with different concessive
conjunctions are as follows: cum, subjunctive present, i, 6, o; imperfect, 7, n, i;
perfect, i, 6, o; pluperfect, 3, 5, o; quamquam, indicative, o, 8, 3; subjunctive,
0,0, i; tametsi, indicative, o, 3, o; subjunctive, i, i, o; quamvis, indicative,
0,0, i; licet, subjunctive, o, o, 3; ut, subjunctive, i, o, o; ne, o; etsi, indicative,
7, o, 2; etiamsi, indicative, o, 3, o; subjunctive, o, 2, o. The grammars show
considerable variety in grouping concessive or adversative clauses. Tametsi
may be listed with the etsi group without affecting the arrangements of this book.

Conditions: The regular types are not found in Caesar except in indirect
discourse. Vergil has the indicative in 8 contrary-to-fact conditions and the

22 SYNTAX OF HIGH -SCHOOL LATIN

present subjunctive in 5. The figures for mixed and irregular conditions are
given merely for comparison; they do not constitute a real category.

The various formal combinations in conditional sentences are as follows:
indicative present in protasis followed by indicative present, o, 16, 12; by future,
o, 7, 8; by perfect, o, 2, 2; by future perfect, o, i, i; by subjunctive present,
o, 7, 18; by imperfect, o, i, o; by imperative, i, 9, 21; by clause with verb omitted,
o, o, 4; indicative imperfect followed by indicative imperfect, i, i, o; indicative
future with indicative present following, o, 4, o; with future, o, 5, i; with sub-
junctive present, o, i, 2; indicative perfect with indicative present, o, 6, 5; with
imperfect, o, i, o; with future, o, i, i; with perfect, o, i, 2; with subjunctive
present, o, 4, 2; with imperative, o, o, 6; indicative pluperfect with indicative
imperfect, 2, o, o; indicative future perfect with indicative present, o, 5, o; with
future, o, 19, 6; with future perfect, o, i, o; with subjunctive present, o, i, o;
with imperative, o, i, o; with no verb expressed, o, 3, o; subjunctive present with
indicative present, o, 5, 2; with future, o, i, 2; with perfect, 0,0, i; with sub-
junctive present, 2, 5, 5; with perfect, 0,0, i; subjunctive imperfect with indica-
tive imperfect, i, o, o; with perfect, o, i, 2; with subjunctive imperfect, 8, 14, 7;
with pluperfect, o, 3, 5; with infinitive present, i, o, o; with participle, i, o, o;
with no verb expressed, i, o, i; subjunctive pluperfect with indicative present,
0,0, i; with imperfect, 0,0, 2; with perfect, o, o, 2; with pluperfect, 0,0, 2; with
subjunctive imperfect, 4, 7, 4; with pluperfect, o, 6, 3; with no verb expressed,
o, o, 2; ablative absolute with indicative present, o, i, o; with future, o, 2, o;
with perfect, o, i, o; with infinitive present, i, o, o; verb omitted with indicative
future, o, o, 2; with subjunctive present, 0,0, i; with imperative, o, o, i. It
should be noted in these figures that some apparently regular combinations are in
reality mixed forms. Thus a present subjunctive in conclusion may be jussive,
etc.

Those in indirect discourse show the following combinations: indicative
present with infinitive future, o, o, i; subjunctive present with subjunctive pres-
ent, 3, o, o; with infinitive present, 9, 2, o; with future, 6, o, o; with perfect,
0,0, i; subjunctive imperfect with subjunctive imperfect, 8, o, o; with infinitive
present, 9, o, o; with future, 6, i, o; with perfect, i, i, o; subjunctive perfect
with subjunctive present, 2, i, o; with perfect, i, o, o; with infinitive present.
2, 2, o; with future, 2, 3, o; subjunctive pluperfect with subjunctive imperfect,
4, o, o; with infinitive present, 2, i, o; with future, u, i, 2; with perfect, i, o, o;
with no verb expressed, o, o, 3; ablative absolute with infinitive present, 2, o, o;
with future, i, o, o.

The use of conjunctions in conditional sentences is as follows, the same
conjunctions often being employed with more than one verb: si, 82, 117, 87;
nisi, 10, 20, 2; ni, o, o, 10; sin, i, 6, 3; sive, seu, o, 2, 6; no conjunction, o, o, i.

Comparison: The one instance in Caesar is with velut si; in Cicero with
quasi; Vergil has veluti 5 times (4 with the indicative, i with verb omitted),
quam si and subjunctive, 3, ceu and indicative, 4, subjunctive, 2, no verb, 2.

Indirect Discourse and Attraction, placed here for convenience

EXPLANATION OF CATEGORIES 23,

include other subordinate clauses as well as adverbial. An example of Repeated
Action is appended to Attraction.

Infinitive. The category infinitive as object is used to designate cases of
infinitive with subject accusative used as object of verbs like volo, patior, iubeo;
it does not include indirect discourse. Where no subject accusative is introduced
the infinitive is listed as complementary.

The infinitive is used as subject of the following expressions: est, 19, 37, 4;
habetur, i, o, o; interest, i, o, o; licet, 9, 3, 13; necesse est, 2, 3, 4; oportet, 14, 15,
o; opus est, i, i, o; placet, 2, 5, i; praestat, 6, o, 5; videtur commodissimum, i,
o, o; constat, o, i, o; convenit, o, 2, o; libet, o, i, o; cerium est, 0,0, i; contingit,
0,0,2', datur, o, o, 9; decet, o, o, i; fas est, 0,0, 14; iuvat, 0,0, 14; mos est, o, o, 2;
nefas est, o, o, 2; paenitet, 0,0, i; piget, 0,0, i; pudet, 0,0, i; sat or satis est, o,
o, 5; stat, 0,0, 3; succurrit, 0,0, i; taedet, 0,0, i; tempus est, 0,0, 2; videtur,
o, o, i.

It is used in apposition with the following expressions: consuetude, 2, o, o;
f acinus, 2, o, o; form of is, 3, o, o; labor or labores, o, 2, i; Ate, o, 2, 2; z//e,

0, i, o; amor, o, o, 4; amor et cupido, o, o, 2; animus, o, o, 9; cupido, 0,0, i;
cwra, o, o, 3; potestas, o, o, 2; j/>6tf, 0,0, i.

It is used as a Predicate Noun with: invidia est, 0,0, i; salus (est), 0,0, i.

The complementary infinitive is found with: audeo, 13, 8, 13; coepi, 46,
6, 3; cowor, 18, 9, 5; consuesco, 23, o, o; constituo, 9, o, 4; cw/>z0, 2, i, 6; debeo, 8,
0,0; decerno, i, o, i; desisto, i, 2, o; dubito, i, n, i; gravor, i, o, o; incipio, i,

1, 4; instituo, 7, i, o; intermitto, i, o, o; wa/0, 2, 9, i; maturo, 2, o, o; neglego, i,
o, o; wo/o, 3, i, o; persevero, i, o, o; polliceor, 2, o, o; praeopto, i, o, o; propero, i,

0, 3; possum, 140, 154, 53; statuo, i, o, o; 1*0/0, 17, 34, 14; animum induco, o,

1, o; debeo, o, 30, o; desino, o, 8, 2; disco, o, 7, 3; 50/e0, o, 9, 6; studeo, o, 6, o;
abnego, 0,0, 2; absisto, 0,0, i; adgredior, 0,0, 2; ardeo, o, o, 8; cer/0, o, o, 5;
contendo, 0,0, i; cwr0, o, o, 3; exposco, 0,0, i; /£0J0, o, o, i; gaudeo, 0,0, i;
horreo, o, o, i; insequor, o, o, 2; insto, o, o, 5; t#-r0, 0,0, i; laetor, 0,0, i;
meditor, 0,0, 2; memini, o, o, 5; wego, 0,0, i; nequeo, o, o, 3; 0/>/0, o, o, 3;
ordior, 0,0, 2; 0r0, 0,0, i; />arc0, 0,0, i; />ar0, 0,0, 12; />er#0, 0,0, i; />0/w es/
0,0, i; quaero, 0,0, 2; queo, 0,0, i; recuso, o, o, 4; sa0, 0,0, 2; spero, o, o, 2;
suesco, o, o, 4; sufficio, o, o, 2; tempto, o, o, 2; tendo, 0,0, 2; timeo, o, o, 2; ^a/e0,
o, o, 5; vereor, 0,0, i.

The infinitive is used as the object of: adsuefacio, i, o, o; C0g0, 5, 5, 7;
desidero, i, o, o; iubeo, 57, 13, 42; «0/0, 4, o, o; patior, 8, 9, 4; prohibeo, 4, o, 4;
z>0/0, i, o, 2; ^0/0, n, 18, 7; cupio, o, 5, o; imperor, o, 3, o; iubeor, o, i, o; wa/0,
o, 4, o; sino, o, i, 2; adigo, 0,0, i; 0g0, 0,0, 2; concede, o, o, i; 0^0, o, o, 8;
0?0ce0, 0,0, 2; facio, 0,0, 2; hortor, 0,0, 7; impello, o, o, 4; impero and passive,
0,0, i; 0/>/0, 0,0, 2; persuadeo, o, o, 2; />0.sc0, 0,0, i; />roo0, o, o, 2; stimulo,
0,0, i; suadeo, o, o, 2; stibigo, o, o, 2.

The infinitive is used in Indirect Discourse with admiror, i, o, o; ago,
6, o, o; animadverto, 13, o, o; arbitror, 26, 17, o; audio, 3, 5, 4; cogito, i, o, o;
cognosce, 10, i, o; commemoro, 2, 3, o; comperio, 5, 5, o; conclamo, 2, o, 2:

24 SYNTAX OF HIGH- SCHOOL LATIN

confido, 4, 5, o; confirmo, 4, 6, o; coniuro, 2, o, o; conspicio, 6, 2, o; constat,
4, o, o; constiluo, i, o, o; credo, 2, 2, 9; demonstro, 6, o, o; denuntio, i, o, o; dico,
58, 60, i; dicer, 2, 14, i; doceo, 4, o, o; doleo, i, o, o; <foc0, 2, 2, o; existimo,
34, n, o; existimor, 2, o, o; gaudeo, i, i, o; intellego, 26, 16, o; invenio, 6, o, i;
z'wfoo, i, o, o; iudico, 5, 5, o; loquor, 27, o, i; memini, i, 3, i; nuntio, 13, o, o;
ostendo, 3, o, o; persuadeo, 3, o, o; polliceor, 9, 2, i; praedico, -are, 30, 2, o;
/>r000, 2, o, o; propone, 8, 2, o; />«/<?, 15, 43, 5; 0/wm?r, 3, i, o; renuntio, 3, o, o;
reperio, 16, o, o; respondeo, 32, i, o; sentio, 2, 19, 5; sao, 7, 13, o; significo, 3,
o, o; simulo, i, i, o; s/>er0, i, 7, 8; statue, 6, 2, o; suspicor, 5, o, o; T^deo, 27, 49,
20; videor, 6, 63, 35; certiorem facie, n, o, o; civitatem obstringo, 3, o, o; cww
Aw mandatis, 3, o, o; es* verbum, 15, o, o; &M/WS es/ orationis, 5, o, o; iw spent
venio, i, o, o; legates mitto, 4, o, o; legati gratulatum veniunt, i, o, o; memoria
teneo, 3, i, o; moleste fere, 2, o, o; nuntius mitto, i, o, o; oratio est, 3, o, o; satis
habeo, i, o, o; verba /ado, 6, o, o; commemoro, 2, o, o; habere explorata dico,
12, o, o; incuso, 19, o, o; obsecro, 5, o, o; 0r0, 2, o, o; />eto, i, o, o; postulo,
2, o, o; se ad pedes proiciunt, 2, o, o; accipio, o, 5, o; admoneo, o, 2, i; agnosco,
o, i, i; aio, o, 2, 2; censeo, o, i, o; concede, o, i, o; confiteor, o, 5, o; contendo,
o, 2, o; criminor, o, i, o; decerno, o, 2, o; declare, o, i, o; defero, o, 6, 2; despero,
o, i, o; dictito, o, i, o; fateor, o, 8, i; ignore, o, 3, o; indico, o, 2, o; infiteor,
o, i, o; /aetor, o, i, o; /w^o, o, i, o; mm?r, o, i, o; ne>£0, o, 3, 2; w^ao, o, 3, o;
obliviscor, o, 3, o; obtineo, o, i, o; opinor, o, r, o; praecipio, o 5, o; praescribo,
o, i, o; profiteer, o, 2, o; provideo, o, i, o; />w/0r, o, i, o; recorder, o, i, o;
scribe, o, 2, o; suadeo, o, 2, o; tester, o, i, 3; opinio est, o, i, o; responsum
fere, o, i, o; ca«0, o, o, 10; cer»0, o, o, 5; o&c0, 0,0, i; /a/fo, 0,0, i; fere, o, o, 3;
feror, 0,0,2; iuro, 0,0, i; mentior, 0,0, i; persentio, o, o, 2; promitto, o, o, 5;
3; ra>r, o, o, 3; repeto, 0,0, 2; respicio, 0,0, i; ^0/0, 0,0, i; /aw# awm occupat,
prospicio, o, o, 2; fama est, 0,0, 7; /<zwa fert, o, o, i; /awa volat, o, o,
4; /fofes manifesta, o, o, i; nuntius venit,o,o, i; signum effodio, 0,0, i; T>0#
(erf), o, o, i.

Infinitives with adjectives: paratus, 5, o, i; certus, o, o, i; dignus, o, o, i;
praestantior, o, o, 2.

The infinitive expresses Purpose with: do, o, o, 9; instituo, 0,0, i; vac0,
0,0, i; venio, 0,0, i.

Participle. The present participle occurs in the following cases; nominative,
9, 9, 270; genitive, 3, 3, 23; dative, 5, 5, 28; accusative, 17, 30, 223; ablative,
o, 3, 20; ablative absolute, additional, 11, 7, 27; vocative, o.

The perfect participle occurs in the following cases: nominative, 213, 119,
515; genitive, 4, 4, 29; dative, 6, 4, 29; accusative, 83, 105, 326; ablative, 12,
22, 57; ablative absolute, additional, 384, 58, 126; vocative, o, 10, 25; deponent
nominative, 88, 7, 119; genitive, 0,0, i- dative, o, o, 3; accusative, 6, i, 8;
ablative, i, o, i; vocative, o, o, 6; middle nominative, o, o, 15.

The future participle occurs in the following cases, not including those in
active periphrastic combination: nominative, o, o, 14; genitive, o, o, 2; dative,
o, o, 4; accusative, o, o, 9; ablative, 0,0, i

EXPLANATION OF CATEGORIES 25

The active periphrastic occurs in the following moods: indicative, i, 5, i;
subjunctive, 3, 5, o.

The gerundive occurs in the following cases, not including periphrastic
use: nominative, i, 8, 7; genitive, 17, 10, o; with causa, additional, 12, 7, o;
dative. 2, o, i; accusative, i, 13, 16; with euro, additional, 3, o, o; with ad,
additional, 33, 42, o; ablative, n, 22, i; vocative, o, o, i.

The passive periphrastic occurs in the following moods: indicative, 14,
39, 12; subjunctive, 2, 10, o; infinitive, 34, 39, 5.

Gerund. The following cases of the gerund are found: genitive, 29, 22, n;
with causa, additional, 12, o, o; dative, o; accusative, o; except with ad, 7, 12,
o; ablative, 4, 15, 16.

THE USE OF STATISTICAL EVIDENCE IN
CURRICULUM-MAKING

THE BEARING OF STATISTICS ON THE SELECTION
OF MATERIAL

Other things being equal, when we select constructions to teach we
should choose those of frequent occurrence, because acquaintance with
these will make a maximum contribution toward successful reading. We
should omit, or give only slight and incidental attention to, constructions
of infrequent occurrence. It will be a further aid to intelligent selec-
tion if we exhibit the constructions arranged in the order of their total
frequency in high-school Latin. Accordingly this is done in Table II.
The column " Occurrences " gives the total number of occurrences for
each construction separately, arranging them in the order of numerical
size. In the column ''Total Occurrences " there is a cumulative adding
together of the successive numbers from the preceding column, so that
one can see at a glance the total number of occurrences of the highest
ten, the highest twenty, or any specific number of constructions. The
column " Percentage of Constructions" shows what percentage any
specific number of constructions is of the total number examined, and
the column " Percentage of Occurrences" shows the percentage which
the occurrences of the highest ten, highest twenty, etc., are of the total
number of occurrences of all the constructions. Thus we see at once
that the highest 10 per cent of the constructions account for 70 per cent
of all the occurrences, the highest 20 per cent for 85 per cent of all the
occurrences, etc.

The same facts are illustrated in Diagrams I A and IB. The two
diagrams are identical except that IB uses a left- to-right scale 6f times
as large as I A, and consequently has the fifteen highest frequencies
cut off at the right edge of the diagram.

Examination of the table and the diagrams makes it clear that the
variations in frequency of different syntactical constructions are not
moderate but extremely large. The complementary infinitive is a
hundred times as frequent as the supine in -urn, relative clauses with the
indicative two hundred times as frequent as relative clauses of conces-
sion, the infinitive in indirect discourse a hundred times as frequent as

26

SELECTION OF MATERIAL

27

TABLE II

RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Construction

Occurrences

Total
Occurrences

Percentage
of Con-
structions

Percentage
of Occur-
rences

i Nominative

6,088

6,088

O 7

12. 3

5,900

11,988

1 .4.

24. 2

•2 Independent clause indicative

4 0?6

16 064.

2 I

34. 3

4. Tenses, subjective regular sequence. .
5 Participle perfect ...

2,825
2,387

19,789
22,176

2.8

3 t

40.0
44 0

6 Genitive possessive

2,294

24,470

4 3

49- 5

7. Tenses, indicative regular sequence. .
8. Ablative means

2,153
1,478

26,623
28,101

S-o
C.7

53-5
56.9

1,258

29,359

6-4

59-4

10 Accusative limit

1,223

30,582

7. 1

61 .9

1,223

31,805

7.8

64.4

1 2 Infinitive indirect discourse

I 174.

32,070

8 s

66 8

13. Ablative, separation
14 Accusative subject of infinitive

1,161
i 147

34,140

35,287

9.2

9Q

69.1

71 4

982

^6,260

10 6

73.4

1 6 Infinitive complementary

816

37 08=;

II 3

75 I

17 Ablative absolute .

720

-27 814.

12 O

76 6

1 8 Participle present

693

38x07

12 8

78 o

19. Tenses, indicative irregular sequence
20. Dative indirect object

598
436

39,105
39,541

13-5
14. 2

79 ..2
80. i

432

39,973

14.9

80.9

369

40,342

15.6

81.7

23 Genitive objective

•240

40,601

16 3

82 4

24 Imperative

247

41,038

17 O

83.1

333

41,371

17. 7

83.8

26 Adverbial clause time cutn

207

41 668

18 4.

84. 4.

27 Ablative respect ..... .

2Q 2

41 060

IQ I

85 0

28. Ablative accompaniment

28l

42,241

10 0

85 6

29. Dative reference

279

42,520

20 6

86.1

30. Genitive, partitive

269

42,789

21 . 3

86.6

31. Infinitive as object

259

43,048

22 .O

87.1

32. Adverbial clause, subordinate in ind.
disc . ....

243

43,2QI

22 7

87^6

33. Ablative, cause

238

43,520

23 4

88.1

34. Ablative time

22Q

4.3 758

24. I

88 6

•35. Ablative agent

218

43 Q76

24. 8

80 o

36. Substantive clause, indirect question
37. Infinitive as subject

215

212

44,191
44,403

25-5
,26.2

89-5
89.9

38. Adverbial clause, cause, quod, etc. . .
39. Adverbial clauses, miscellaneous in-
dicative

211

2O8

44,614
44 822

26.9
27 7

90.3

QO 8

40. Gerundive

2O8

45,O3O

28 4

OI . 2

41. Genitive, material

IOI

45,221

20 I

91 .6

42. Accusative, adverbial

187

45 ,408

29.8

91 .9

43. Dative with special verbs

1 1O

4.5 567

30 <

02 2

44. Ablative with prepositions

155

45 722

31 2

02 5

45. Passive periphrastic

1C"?

45 877

31 n

02 8

46. Substantive clause volitive

152

46 029

32 6

O3 I

47. Relative clause, descriptive
48. Conditions, mixed and irregular
49. Gerund

152
151
128

46,181
46,332

4.6 460

33-3
34-0

34 7

93-4
93-7

04 O

28

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN
TABLE II— Continued

Construction

Occurrences

Total
Occurrences

Percentage
of Con-
structions

Percentage
of Occur-
rences

50. Adverbial clause, time, postquam, etc.
51 Adverbial clause, purpose

127
118

46,587
46,705

35-5
1,6 2

94-3

O4 ?

< 2 Adverbial clause result

118

4.6 821

26 Q

53 Dative with adjectives

II r

4.6 038

37 6

v4- /

54 Dative possessor

ICX

47 O43

38 3

QT I

^ ? Dative asrent

IOO

47 143

2Q O

56 Ablative descriptive

Q4

47 237

2Q 7

Vo -o

57 Accusative extent, duration

86

47 32^

4O 4

VO • 5
QP 7

58 Ablative, source

84

47,407

41 I

ner Q

<o Ablative utor etc

84

47 4QI

41 8

60 Adverbial clause, cause, cum

81

47 ^72

42 t;

06 3

6 1 Dative, purpose

70

47>65I

43 2

06 ^

62 Genitive with adjectives

77

47 728

43 Q

96 6

63 Genitive descriptive

77

4.7 8<X

44 6

96 8

64 Ablative difference

76

47 881

4C 7

06 o

6 ^ Substantive clause quod

76

47 O^7

46 i

66 Relative clause purpose . . .

67

48 O24

46 8

O7 2

67 Dative direction, etc

66

48 OQO

47 ^

Q7 4

68 Substantive clause, result

64

48, 154

48 2

O7 ^

60 Adverbial clause time dutn

62

48 216

48 o

O7 6

70 Conditions contrary to fact

e c

48 271

4.0 6

O7 7

71. Conditions, regular in ind. disc
72. Accusative, respect
73. Conditions, simple

55
So

(JO

48,326
48,376
48,426

50-3
51-0
51.8

97.8

97-9
08 o

74. Independent clause, subjunctive,
volitive, 3d per '

48

48.474

CT2 <?

08 i

75. Independent clause, subjunctive, de-
liberative

4-C

48,519

<V 2

98.2

76 Two accusatives, making, etc. . .

43

48 ^62

CT2 Q

08 3

77. Adverbial clause, concession, cum. . .
78. Infinitive, historical

41

T.Q

48,603
48,642

54-6
ec . 3

V"- J

98.4

98 5

70 Locative case

l8

48 680

r6 o

98 6

80 Infinitive in apposition ... .

27

48,717

5".w
56 7

08 6

81: Adverbial clause, subjunctive in at-
traction

2 r

4.8 7 C 2

q7 4.

08 7

82 Subordinate clauses in ind. disc

24

48 786

o/ -^
*8 I

08 8

83 Relative clause, cause

•32

48,818

58 8

08 o

84. Conditions, more vivid future

21

48,849

5Q.6

98.9 •

85 Participle future

TO

48 870

60 3

00 O

86. Substantive dau»e', quin, etc
87. Independent clause, subjunctive,
volitive ist per

26

2C

48,905
4.8 O^O

uu.^

61.0

6l 7

99.0

QQ I

88 Ablative in comparison

22

4.8 0^2

62 4.

00 I

89. Independent clause subj. for imper.
in ind. disc
90. Adverbial clause, time, antequam, etc.
91. Adverbial clause, comparison
92. Relative clause, result

2O
20

18
17

48,972
48,992

49,010
49,027

63.1
63-8
64-5

6s . 2

99.2
99.2
99.2

99- 3

93. Adverbial clause, concession, quam-
quam etc

17

40 O44

65 o

99- 3

94. Supine in -u . .

16

49,060

66.6

99- 1

95. Accusative, exclamation

1C

49,075

67.4

99-4

SELECTION OF MATERIAL
TABLE II— Continued

29

Construction

Occurrences

Total
Occurrences

Percentage
of Con-
struction

Percentage
of Occur-
rences

96. Independent clause, ne and impera-
tive

icr

4.0 OQO

68 I

OO A

97. Independent clause, subjective, opta-
tive

1C

49,105

68 8

00 4.

98 Active periphrastic

I e

4.O 1 2O

6O <

99 Genitive remembering, etc . . .

14.

40,134

7O 2

yy -o

oo ?

too. Genitive, miseret, etc
101. Independent clause, subjunctive, voli-
tive 2d per

14
14.

49,148
40 162

70.9

71 6

99 5

oo c

102. Adverbial clause, concession, etsi, etc.
103. Tenses, sequence in result clauses. . .
104. Substantive clause, fear

14

12
12

49,176
49,188
49,2OO

72.3

73-o
73 7

yy -o
99.6
99-6

OQ 6

105 Infinitive purpose

12

4.O 212

74. 4.

106. Independent clause, subjunctive, po-
tential

II

49,223

7s? 2

OO 7

107. Infinitive with adjectives
108. Independent clause, subj. for interr.
in ind. disc

IO

8

49,233
40 24.1

75-9
76 6

99 7

OO 7

109. Adverbial clause, proviso

8

40,24.0

77 3

OO 7

no Supine in -um

8

4.Q 2^.7

78 o

in Genitive, value

7

4.O 264.

78 7

yy • /
oo 8

112. Accusative, cognate

7

4.0 271

7O 4.

yy .0
OO 8

113. Ablative, price :

6

40 277

80 I

OO 8

1 14. Independent clause, subjunctive, con-
cessive

6

4.O 283

80 8

oo 8

115. Relative clause, concession
116. Conditions, simple general

6
6

49,289
4.Q 2O C

8l-5
82 2

yy .0

99-8
oo 8

117. Conditions, less vivid future
118. Independent clause, subjunctive, ob-
ligation
119. Substantive clause, optative

6
5

e

49,301
49,306

AQ 3H

83.0

83.7
84. 4.

99.8
99-8

120. Adverbial clause, concession, quam
vis, etc

AQ -216

8r T

yy -y

121. Two accusatives, asking, etc
122. Ablative, penalty

4

49,320
4.0 324.

85-8

86 <

yy .y

99-9

123. Tenses, irregular subj. sequence with
qui

4.O 328

87 2

yy -y

1 24. Tenses, sequence in purpose clauses .
125. Genitive, accusing, etc. . .

4

49,332
4.Q 33?

87.9
88 6

yy .y

99.9

126. Genitive, interest, etc

4.0 338

80 3

yy -y

127. Two accusatives with compounds. . .
128. Infinitive, exclamation

3
3

49,341
40 34-4-

9O.O

oo 8

99-9
oo o

129. Genitive, verbs of plenty, etc

2

4.O 34.6

OI C

130. Genitive, potior

2

4.Q 34.8

yi -3

O2 2

yy .y

131. Tenses, parenthetical purpose. . .

2

4.O 3 ?O

O2 O

yy .y
OO O

132. Tenses in cum clauses
133. Tenses in conditions contrary to fact
134. Relative clause, condition. .

2
2
2

49,352

49,354

4.Q 3 ?6

93-6

94-3
o? o

99-9
99-9

135. Infinitive as predicate noun
136. Independent claus.e, imperative, noli
137. Relative clause, imperative

2

I

j

49,358

49,359

95-7
96.4

yy .y

99-9
99-9

138. Relative clause, wish.

I

4.O 36l

y/ • A

O7 8

yy -y

39. Genitive, admoneo, etc

o

4.Q 36l

98 6

140. Independent clause, imperative, cave
141. Independent clause, ne and vol. subj.,
2d per

O

o

49,36l
4.O 36l

99.3

100. 0

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

Frequency

IO

20

30
40

g So
| 60

I ^o

6 so

go

IOO

no
1 20
130
140

DIAGRAM IA. — 141 constructions. Relative frequency of occur-
rence in high-school Latin.

Frequency

o o o
10 o

DIAGRAM IB. — 141 constructions. Relative frequency
of occurrence in high-school Latin. Scale enlarged by
cutting off the graph lines of the first fifteen constructions.

AMOUNT OF MATERIAL 31

the subjunctive after verbs of fearing, the indicative in independent
clauses between four and five hundred times as frequent as the potential
subjunctive in independent clauses, and the ablative of means two hun-
dred times as frequent as the ablative of price. It is evident that the
unconscious assumption that all the constructions listed in a grammar
are about equally deserving of study, the assumption on which much
of our teaching has actually been based, has no support whatever in the
real facts of the situation.

THE BEARING OF STATISTICS ON THE AMOUNT
OF MATERIAL

Statistics of frequency of usage should ordinarily be the basis of
decision to devote time to one construction in preference to some other
construction or, in other words, the basis of selection. Another question
is, How far should the study of syntax be carried? How many con-
structions should be included? The statistics of frequency will also
assist anyone who attempts a rational answer to this question. Natur-
ally the largest profit attaches to the study of the most frequently used
constructions, and as we go down the scale we find the constructions
successively becoming less and less profitable as additions to our equip-
ment; we meet with " diminishing returns." This is evident from the
figures of Table II, and Diagram II represents the same facts graphically.
In the diagram the dots represent separate constructions arranged in the
order of Table II, that is, the order of greatest frequency. For any dot
the abscissa, or distance from the left edge of the diagram, represents the
number of constructions of which this is the last taken. The ordinate,
or distance from the lower edge, represents the percentage which the
occurrences of these many constructions constitute of the whole number
of occurrences of all constructions. Thus as we follow the dots around
the curve from the origin, the first dot indicates that the first construc-
tion accounts for 12 per cent of all the occurrences, the second that the
first two account for 24 per cent, the third that the first three account
for 34 per cent; similarly the first five account for 44 per cent, the first
ten for 61 per cent, the first twenty for 80 per cent, and so on. Or, in
terms of percentages:

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

10% of the constructions account for over 71 .0% of the occurrences

20%

30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%

u

85.0%

u

It

91-0%

u

u

95-o%

u

"

97-0%

u

u

98.0%

u

u

99-0%

u

u

99-8%

u

u

99-9%

u

u

100.0%

u

Actual number of constructions

Percentage of total number of constructions

DIAGRAM II. — Percentage of the total number of occurrences belonging to each
fractional part of the total number of constructions.

AMOUNT OF MATERIAL 33

The approach of the curved line to a horizontal, as well as its close
proximity to the 100 per cent line, represented by the upper edge of the
diagram, indicates the small and diminishing increment of profit to be
attached to the adding of the less frequent constructions. If all the
constructions were equally frequent the curve would be a diagonal
straight line from the lower left to the upper right corner. The marked
convexity of the curve is another index to the inequality in frequency of
occurrences. At just what point the adding of new constructions shall
cease is a question for individual or collective judgment to decide; the
statistical exhibit may serve as part of the scientific basis for such a
decision.

There is some advantage in the further examination of a specimen
selection. Professor Lodge in his Vocabulary of High School Latin sub-
mits as his selection of words mainly those found to occur as many as
five times in the high-school reading. These are 42 per cent of all the
words and they account for 93 ^ per cent of all the occurrences. Simi-
larly in the subsequent portions of this book we are distinguishing as a
specimen selection the constructions used as many as five times by any
one author, together with those found ten times in the three authors but
less than five times in any one. The total number of all constructions
examined is 141, and these are found employed in 49,361 instances. But
as sequence of indicative tenses and mixed conditions were given only,
for purposes of comparison and are not usually taught as grammatical
categories, this really reduces to 137 constructions employed 46,425
times. The specimen selection based on five occurrences in one author,
or ten in all three, includes 109 of these constructions, and their occur-
rences number 46,339 out of the 46,425. That is, 79T\ per cent of the
constructions are employed in 99 r\ per cent of the instances. Considered
with reference to the number of occurrences this selection is evidently
very large, accounting in fact for almost all of them, or, to be precise,
for more than 99y\ per cent. I should be prepared to hear that some
Latin departments would advocate the covering of not over 95 or 90
per cent of the ground instead of the 99^ per cent represented by this
very conservative selection. The 109 constructions are enumerated in
the next section.

34 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

THE BEARING OF STATISTICS ON THE ARRANGEMENT
OF MATERIAL

Besides contributing to an intelligent selection of material and deter-
mination of the amount of material to be used, the statistics of usage
are also a scientific basis for the arrangement of the selected material in
the curriculum. It is obvious that the constructions used by Caesar are
in the main the ones that should be studied in the Caesar year, those
used by Cicero the ones that should be studied in the Cicero year, and
those used by Vergil the proper ones for the Vergil year. Of course they
overlap, and many continue to be used throughout the course. But as
a matter of pedagogical principle constructions common in Cicero, but
not common in Caesar, should not be studied until Cicero is reached
and they are actually needed; constructions common in Vergil, but not
common in Caesar or Cicero, should not be studied until Vergil is
reached. For the first year of the usual four-year course it may be best
to use those constructions of the greatest frequency in Caesar. If we
assign to the first year those constructions found 50 times in Caesar, and
arrange our specimen selection of 109 constructions in the manner sug-
gested, the distribution in a four-year course would be:

Year

Basis

Number New
Constructions

I . .

50 times in Caesar

4.r

2

5 times in Caesar

•21

5 times in Cicero

IQ

5 times in Vergil

14.

Total

IOQ

Table III (p. 35) exhibits these constructions arranged in this
manner.

An arrangement by half-years would be more arbitrary. In the
upper years perhaps there is not enough new material to make it worth
while to divide it by half-years. All the new Cicero constructions might
be learned in the first half of the year and reviewed in the second, and
all the new Vergil constructions similarly. In the first two years the
new material is so copious that a subdivision is probably desirable. In
the first year, if we take in the first semester those constructions used
90 times in Caesar and in the second semester those used 50 times, the
apportionment will be 26 and 19 respectively. In Caesar a grouping of

ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL

35

I

".-.a

^Agent
Posses
vWithli

ominativ

A V '^-a

lira V

^stss s T?

«? -5^ -H •-*-> -S <J

D 3>

-S . , B,
o «^^3

5 '5 rcJ

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

£?*

oo

1

*

.S

o>

•t

\

d
j I '•

£ ll

5 C

a«

6 c

I-H —

v2 «2

3
GOO)

CTcn E^^3C3 i3

30) .S--R5O *J

PnQ H CJU <

•> -r > >

-

fi O

0)

•a

3
C/3

03

O )

ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL

37

20 and ii is secured by assigning those used over 12 times to the third
half-year and those used 5 times to the fourth. The half-year distribu-
tion described may be summarized thus:

Half-Year

Basis

Number New
Constructions

I

90 times in Caesar

26

2

50 times in Caesar

IQ

1 3 times in Caesar

2O

cj times in Caesar

I I

5 times in Cicero

IQ

5.

6

Review of all prose constructions

o

7 . .

5 times in Vergil

14

8

Review of all constructions

Q

Total

IOQ

The tentative arrangement of specific constructions by half-years is
shown in Table IV (p. 38).

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

TABLE IV
TENTATIVE SYNOPSIS BY HALF-YEARS

First Half- Year

Second Half-Year

Third Half-Year

Fourth Half-Year

Nominative

Nominative

Vocative .......

Genitive

Possessive

Objective

Descriptive

With adjec-

Dative

Partitive
Ind. object

Material
Special verbs

Agent

tives
Possessor

Accusative
Ablative

Dir. object
Limit
Subj. infin.
W. prepositions

Separation1--"

Compounds
Reference
Purpose

Manner

W. adjectives

Adverbial
Extent, dura-
tion

Source

Agent *
Means
Cause
Accompani-
ment
Absolute
Place
Time

Respect
W. preposi-
tions

utor, etc.
Difference
Descriptive

Locative

Tenses

Regular se-

Independent cl
Substantive cl

quence
Indicative

quod

Subj. for imp.
in Or. Ob.

quin, etc.

Subj. for int.
in Or. Ob.

Fear

Relative cl

Indicative

Volitive
Ind. question

Result
Purpose

Adverbial cl

Time — cum

Indicative

Descriptive
Time — dum

Time — ante-

Infinitive

Cause — quod
In ind. disc.

Complement 'y

Purpose
Result

Subject

" — post-
quam
Cause — cum
Attraction

Historical

quam
Concession —
cum
Concession —
etsi

Apposition

Participle

Object
Ind. disc.

Perfect

Gerundive

Present

W. adjective

Gerund and supine

Pass, peri-
phrastic

Gerund

Supine in -um

ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL

39

TABLE IV— Continued
TENTATIVE SYNOPSIS BY HALF-YEARS

Fifth Half- Year"

Sixth
Half-Year

Seventh Half-Year

Eighth
Half-Year

Nominative

Vocative

Vocative

Genitive

Remembering

Dative . . .

miseret, etc.
Direction etc

Accusative

Twoaccus. "making"

Cognate

Ablative

Exclamation
Comparison

Respect

b

Locative .

i

Tenses

Irreg. seq. — Result

3

n

Independent cl
Substantive cl . .

Imperative
Subj. — Volitive 3 p.
" Deliberative
" Concessive
" Potential

c

fr

a,
15
"fc

ne and Imperative
Subj. — Volitive i p.
Volitive 2 p.
Optative
Obligation

rt

cl

i

>*

Relative cl

Result

£

u

Adverbial cl

Cause
Proviso

3

Comparison

Ctf

tJ

Infinitive .

Concession — quam-
quam
Conditions — Simple
M. V.
future
Conditions — Contr.
fact
In ind. disc.

Purpose etc

1

«

Participle

Active periphrastic

Future

Gerund and supine

Supine in -u

With the coming of junior high schools we shall have to work out
arrangements for six-year courses. Possibly a common type of cur-
riculum will be the extension of " beginning" work over the first two
years, assigning Caesar to the third, Cicero to the fourth, Vergil to the
fifth, and what is now read by college Freshmen to the sixth. If so, a

40 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

specimen six-year arrangement might be not greatly different from what
we have suggested for four years, for example:

Year

Basis

Number New
Constructions

I

oo times in Caesar

26

2

40 times in Caesar

or

*. .

5 times in Caesar

2C.

5 times in Cicero

IQ

C.

5 times in Vergil

1A.

6

Use in the sixth-year readings

The specific constructions indicated can be readily ascertained from
Tables III, IV, and I.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES CLASSIFIED UNDER
GRAMMATICAL HEADINGS

It has been thought that it might add to the usefulness of the book
to include a selection of illustrative examples. For each construction
five examples are given from each author (if he employed it that many
times). Following the style of typography of the Lodge Vocabulary, we
have used black type to indicate constructions used as many as five
times by Caesar, ordinary type for the additional constructions used
five times by Cicero, and small capitals for the new constructions
used five times by Vergil; moreover, those used less than five times in
any one author, but as many as ten times in all three, are placed in
either the Cicero or the Vergil list. All other constructions are printed
in extra small type.

The examples are first presented in the order of grammatical classi-
fication as in Table I. Then the same examples are presented in their
order of occurrence in the texts.

SELECTED EXAMPLES

NOMINATIVE

Nominative: Gallia, B. G.1 i. i, i; pars, i, 5; is, 2, i; Orgetorix, 3, 3;
Caesar, 32, 2. furor, Cat., i. i; castra, 5; is, 22; ego, 29; homines, 31. wrfa,
,4m. i. 12; 7w«0, 36; Aeolus, 76; Fewwj, 325; iniuria, 341.

VOCATIVE

Vocative: milites, B. G. iv. 25, 3. Catilina, Cat. i. i; Catilina, 2; Catilina,
3; Catilina, 4; patres, 4. Aeole, Aen. i. 65; regina, 76; Ewre, 140; r&e, 241;
Cytherea, 257.

GENITIVE
Possessive: provinciae, B. G. i. i, 3; nobilitatis, 2, i; eiws, 7, 3; fluminis,

8, 4; Aeduorum, n, i. urbis, Cat. i. i; populi, i; bonorum, i; senatus, i;
horum, i. Troiae, Aen. i. i; superum, 4; lunonis, 4; Romae, 7; deww, 9.

Objective: regm, 5. G. i. 2, i; causae, 4, 2; reditionis, 5, 3; itineris, 7, 4;
regw, 9, 3. Palati, Cat. i. i; seditionum, 4; castrorum, 5; optumatium, 7; wrow,

9. fo/&, ylew. i. 14; formae, 27; generis, 132; pelagi, 138; telluris, 171.
Partitive: quarum, B. G. i. i, i; horum, i, 3; fluminis, i, 6; Oceani, i, 7;

passuum, 2, 5. consili, Cat. i. i; nostrum, i; nostrum, 2; detrimenti, 4; gentium,
9. rtfgm, ylm. i. 78; gentis, 96; sororum, 322; sororum, 326; sanguinis, 329.

Material: hominum, B. G. i. 4, 3; equitum, 15, 3; dediticiorum, 27, 4; &0mi-
nww, 35, 3; hominum, ii. 6, 2. hostium, Cat. i. 5; amicorum, n; coniuratorum,
12; temporis, Arch, i; hominum, 3. aquae, Aen. i. 105; harenae, 112; alarum,
301; ar^ew/i, 359; awn, iii. 49.

Descriptive: mensium, B. G. i. 5, 3; pedum, 8, i; legionum, 24, 2; pedum,
ii. 5, 6; w0di, iii. 12, i. w0df, Ca/. i. 4; ordinum, iv. 14; w0d^, Pomp. 6;
gentium, 44; w0dz, ^4rcA. 3. molis, Aen. i. 33; 0/>w, 601; gentis, iv. 483;
populi, 615; /wcw, vi. 761.

Value: /aw/i, B. G. i. 20, 5; magni, iv. 21, 7. ton/i, Ca*. i. 22; /aw/i, ii. 15; />ar7;f,
Pomp. 18; parvi, Arch. 14. /aw/j, .4en. iii. 453.

With Adjectives: bellandi, B. G. i. 2, 4; iniuriae, 14, 2; rerww, 18, 3; m, 21,
4; rerum, 44, 9. consili, Cat. i. 2; imperi, 12; Catilinae, ii. 6; Catilinae, 22;
ferramentorum,ui.io. opum, Aen.i.i^; rerum, 178; awn, 343; wworae,44i; swi,
v. 174.

WITH VERBS OF REMEMBERING, ETC.: incommodi, B. G. i. 13, 4; virtutis,

i The abbreviations used are as follows:

B. G. = Caesar de fo//o Gallico; Cat.= Cicero *» Catilinam; Pomp. = Cicero <fc
imperio Pompei; Arch.= Cicero />ro Archia; A en.= Vergil Aeneis.

Numbers in Caesar refer to book, chapter, and sentence; in Cicero, to oration
and section; in Vergil, to book and line; they are taken from the Teubner editions,
edited by Dinter, Muller, and Ribbeck respectively.

41

42 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

13, 4; contumeliae, 14, 3. caedis, Cat. i. 6; incendiorum, 6; salutis, iv. i. sw«,
Aen. iii. 629; famae, iv. 221; regw, 267; rerum, 267; Elissae, 335.

With Verbs of Accusing, etc.: inertiae, Cat. i. 4; nequitiae, 4. mortis, Aen.
vi. 430.

WITH MISERET, PAENITET, ETC.: quorum, B. G. iv. 5, 3. factorum Cat.
iv. 20; consiliorum, 20. laborum, Aen. ii. 143; animi, 144; thalami, iv. 18;
domus, 318; sororis, 435.

With Interest and Refert: rei, B. G. ii. 5, 2; salutis, 5, 2. wea, Ca/. iv. 9.
With Verbs of Plenty and Want: bacchi, Aen. i. 215; ferinae, 215.
With Potior: Galliae, B. G. i. 3, 7. rerunt, Cat. ii. 19.

DATIVE
Indirect Object: ej, 5. G. i. 3, 5; illis,^,6\ illis,$,6\ Helvetiis, 4, i; Caesari,

7, i. dw, Ca/. i. n; 70w, ii; fo'W, 16; adulescenti, 21; w>0, 21. mi&«, ^4e/i.
i. 8; foTrc, 65; w*7«, 78; undis, 104; re£*, 137.

With Special Verbs: civitati, B. G. i. 2, i; m, 2, 3; Rauracis, 5, 4; ;l//0-
bro gibus, 6, 3; /m, 9, 2. reowj, Ca/. i. 3; mihi, 6; woow, 22; temporibus, 22;
/aw<&, 23. w6/#, ylew. i. 257; generi, 526; cfo'c/w, 689; dicto, 695; e<7«0, ii. 48.

With Compounds: omnibus, B. G. i. 2, 2; finitimis, 2, 4; sibi, 3, 3; munitioni.
10, 3; populo, 12, 6. ttw/«, Ca/. i. n; to'W, n; vitae, 13; adulescentulo, 13;
sceleri, 15. scopulo, Aen. i. 45; am, 49; ventis, 69; mar^, 84; />0«to, 89.

Reference: ^'0i, 5. G. i. 5, 3; sibi, 14, 2; Haeduis, 17, 4; sifo', 28, i. j»W,
36, 4. ret publicae, Cat. i. 5; /J0i, 16; /j'oi, 18; cui, 24; CT, ii. 2. gentibus, Aen.
i. 17; ;4ew&ze, 92; iactanti, 102; /ws, 106; quibus, 232.

Agent: «fo, J5. G. i. n, 6; GO//W, 31, 14; Sequanis, 32, 5; sffo, 33, 2; wW,
35, 2. ww/w, Ca/. i. 5; tibi, 16; fo'oi, 16; fo'oi, 17; c«i, 24. /a/w, ^4ew. i. 39; mihi,
326; «/&, 440; mihi, 574; w#«, 623.

Possessor: sibi, B. G. i. 7, 3; «oi, n, 5; t#5», 34, 2; ^'oi, 35, 4; nulli, ii. 6, 3.
lenitati, Cat. ii. 6; wfo', 26; portis, 27; w'ae, 27; Cethego, iii. 10. animis, Aen.
i. n; fw/tt, 71; virginibus, 336; /twic, 343; quibus, 361.

Purpose: praesidio, B. G. i. 25, 6; domicilio, 30, 3; concilia, 30, 5; cwrae,
33, i; colloquio, 34, i. nuptiis, Cat. i. 14; jructui, Pomp. 16; cwrae, 17;
praesidio, 32; sa/«/i, ;lrc&. i. excidio, Aen. i. 22;' rebus, 207; praedae, 210; /ec/0,
425; auocilio, ii. 216.

With Adjectives: Germanis, B. G. i. i, 3; />/e&i, 3, 5; finibus, 6, 3; Galliae,
28, 4; s#rc, 39, 3. to'W, Ca/. i. 15; /ioi, 24; /ww, 24; w*7w, 27; wo0w, iii. 2. wwTw,
^4ew. i. 67; cwi, 314; caelestibus, 387; ambobus, 458; <&0, 589.

DIRECTION (POETIC): La/J0, Aen. i. 6; cae/0, 289; 0m, 377; om, 538;
0m, 6 1 6.

ACCUSATIVE

Direct Object: unam, B. G. i. i, i; aliam, i, i; tertiam, i, i; ea, i, 3; bellum,
i, 3. »0s, Ca/. i. i; sese, i; te, i; ^w^, i; quid, 4. arwa, ^4ew. i. i; urbem, 5
rfeo^, 6; causas, 8; quam, 15.

SELECTED EXAMPLES 43

Adverbial: nihil, B. G. i. 40, 12; multum, iii. 9, 3; multum, iv. i, 8; maocimam
partem, i, 8; multum, 3, 3. nihil, Cat. i. i; quid, 20; ecquid, 20; gmd, 22; quid,
24. multum, Aen. i. 3; primum, 174; primum, 189; gww?, 407; tantum, 745.

COGNATE: praedara, Cat. iii. 5; egregia, 5; quiddam, Arch. 26. hominem,
Aen. i. 328; />/«ra, 385; ww/to, 750; waw, iv. 468; iter, v. 862.

Two Accusatives, "Making": vergobretum, B. G. i. 16, 5; soldurios,
jii. 22, i; regem, iv. 21, 7. dignum, Cat. i. 19; gloriam, 29; civem, ii. 12; hostem,
12; sanctos, Arch. 18. parentem, Aen. i. 75; aras, 109; miserum, ii. 79; Chaonios,
iii. 334; victorem, v. 245.

Two Accusatives, "Asking": frumentum, B. G. i. 16, i. poenas, Aen. ii. 139;
veniam, iv. 50; /a/a, vi. 759.

Two Accusatives with Compounds: Axonam, B. G. ii. 5, 4; pontem, 10, i; Rhenum,
iv. 1 6, 6.

RESPECT: oculos, Aen. i. 228; gew#, 320; animum, 579; 05, 589; manus,
ii- 57-

Extent, duration: a/w0s, 5. G. i. 3, 4; m#ta, 8, i; <fe'es, 15, 5; 07m0s, 18, 3 ;
<&e.y, 39, i. diem, Cat. i. 4; <&ew, 4; annos, ii. 7; dies, iii. 20; punctum, iv. 7.
annos, Aen. i. 31; annos, 47; annos, 272; saecula, 445; noctem, 683.

Limit: septentriones, B. G. i. i, 5; partem, i, 6; septentrionem, i, 6; monies,
i, 7; indicium, 4, 2. finem, Cat. i. i; senatum, 2; mortem, 2; te, 2; »<w, 2.
Italiam, Aen. i. 2; /z'/0ra} 3; altum, 34; patriam, 51; Italiam, 68.

Exclamation: tempora, Cat. i. 2; mores, 2; rew publicam, ii. 7; w0.s, 10;
rem publicam, 10. miser abile, Aen. i. in; infandum, 251; mirabile, 439; wira-
0i/e, iv. 182; horrendum, 454. The examples in Vergil are in agreement with
clauses; they are nevertheless exclamatory.

Subject of Infinitive: Gallos, B. G. i. i, 5; se, 2, 5; biennium, 3, 2; se, 3, 6;
sese, 3, 7. consilia, Cat. i. i; coniurationem, i; quern, i; te, 2; pestem, 2. hoc.
Aen. L 17; progeniem, 19; populum, 21; Parcas, 22; we, 37.

With Prepositions: se, 5. G. i. i, 2; Rhenum, i, 3; rem, 4, 3; angustias, 9, i;
eww, 48, 2. we, Ca£. iv. 5; noctem, 6; inferos, 8; oculos, n; Tabernas, 17 j
cornua, Aen. iv. 61; nemora, 70; altaria, 145; awras, 357; terras, 523.

ABLATIVE

Separation: Aquitanis, B. G. i. i, 2; Belgis, i, 2; cw//w, i, 3; finibus, 2, i;
o#m, 4, 3. Roma, Cat. i. 7; cwra, 9; woe, 10; we/w, 10; wroe, 12. animo, Aen.
i. 26; La&'0, 31; inceptot 37; puppi, v. 12; vespere, 19.

Source: finibus, B. G. i. i, 6; matre, 18, 7; tribunis, 39, 2; Germanis, ii. 4, 2;
Cimbris, 29, 4. civitatibus, Pomp. 28; nationibus, 28; e0, 59; studiis, Arch. 13;
doctrina, 18. ja^0, ^4ew. i. 167; origine, 286; Maid, 297; ve/w, 469; dea, 582.

Agent: senatu, B. G. i. 3, 4; se, 14, 2; m, 14, 6; maioribus, 14, 7; m, 16, 6.
we, Cfl/. i. 5; /e, 16; gw0, 19; <7«0, 19; we, 23. ewr00, ^4e». iii. 533; 70?;e, iv.
356; 70z/e, 377.

Comparison: opinione, B. G. ii. 3, i; a««0, iv. i, 7; ceteris, 3, 3. /wee,

44 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

Cat. i. 6; vita, 27; opinione, iv. 6; me, n; homine, Pomp. 28. term, ^4e«.
i. 15; dicto, 142; 0w0, 544; nota, ii. 773; ttfw, iii. 214.

Means: ftumine, B. G. i. i, 5; natura, 2, 3; ftumine, 2, 3; monte, 2, 3; reows,
3, i. scientia, Cat. i. i; caede, 3; manu, 3; suppliciis, 3; praesidiis, 6. •w, 4m.
i. 4; /a/w, 32; aere, 35; ve»/w, 43; turbine, 45.

With Utor, etc.: imperio, B. G. i. 2, 2; consilio, 5, 4; frumento, 16, 3; opibus,
20, 3; impediments, 26, 4. patientia, Cat. i. i; laetitia, 26; /MS, ii. 18; 0/>era,
iii. 5; praesidio, 8. vocibus, Aen. i. 64; harena, 172; awra, 546; awr0, iii. 55;
dapibus, 224.

Cause: dolore, B. G. i. 2, 4; cupiditate, 9, 3; victoria, 14, 4; cawsa, 18, 6;
caw$a, 39, 2. cawsa, Ca/. i. 15; conscientia, 17; cawsa, 19; memoria, 22; gaudiis,
26. /a/0, Aen. i. 2; amore, 349; laetitia, 514; aspectu, 613; dolore, 669.

Manner: periculo, B. G. i. 10, 2; lenitate, 12, i; lacrimis, 20, i; sinistra, 25, 3;
proelio, 26, i. animo, Cat. i. 16; />ac/0, 17; ratione, 17; wodo, 18; animo, 20.
murmure, Aen. i. 55; conubio, 73; turbine, 83; cumulo, 105; riwm, 123.

Accompaniment: Germanis, B. G. i. i, 4; copiis, 2, i; civitatibus, 3, i; se,
5> 35 fe£«*w, 8, 3. we, Ca/. i. 6; me, 8; te, 8; te, 9; te, 10; se, 4ew. i. 37; gew/e,
47; se, 50; se, 59; navibus, 193.

Degree of Difference: ww//0, B. G. i. 6, 2; ^MO, 8, 2; e0, 14, i; quo, 14, 5;
passibus, 22, i. diebus, Cat. iii. 3; multo, iv. 3; WM//O, 17; ww/to, Pomp, i;
multo, 10. multo, Aen. ii. 199; capite, 219; cervicibus, 219; cursu, iii. 116;
tempore, 309.

Descriptive: animo, B.G. 1.6,3-, animo, 7, 4; virtute, 28, 5; altitudine,s&, 5;
magnitudine, 39, i. />a/re, Ca/. i. 4; commendatione, 28; animo, 29; acre, ii. 4;
capillo, 22. corpore, Aen. i. 71; «7vJ5, 164; scopulis, 166; mensibus, 269;
313.

Price: pretio, B. G. i. 18, 3; pretio, iv. 2, 2. /Iwro, ^4en. i. 484; magno, ii. 104;

, vi. 621; pretio, 622.

Penalty: morte, Cat. i. 28; morte, 29; morte, ii. 4; morte, iv. 7.

Respect: lingua, B. G. i. i, i; lingua, i, 2; institutis, i, 2; virtute, 2, 2;
, 3, 6. custodia, Cat. i. 19; ubertate, Pomp. 14; genere, 27; magnitudine, 27;
27. 6e//0, 4e». i. 21; /0rw0, 72; /wga, 317; /wwore, 335; 6e//0, 339.

Absolute: Messala, B. G. i. 2, i; re£«0, 3, 7; j/>e, 5, 3; oppidis, 5, 4; reows,
6, 4. coe/M, Ca^. i. 10; tumultu, ii; we, 13; Lepido, 15; A0c, 30. /ae50, ylm.
i. 8; 5aw0, 16; cuspide, 81; agmine, 82; compagibus, 122.

Place Where: finibus, B. G. i. i, 4; itinere, 3, i; civitate, 3, 5; Gallia, 7, 2;
animo, 7, 3. re publica, Cat. i. 3; tabulis, 4; periculis, 4; Italia, 5; faucibus, 5.
term, 4ew. i. 3; a/te-, 3; aequore, 29; />0w/0, 40; c0r<te, 50.

Time: tempore, B. G. i. 3, 5; <fte, 6, 4; die, 10, 5; tempore, n, 3; tempore,
n, 4. <&e, Ca/. i. 7; discessu, 7; Kalendis, 8; »0cte, 8; «0cte, 9. aestate, Aen. i.
430; somno, 470; cardine, 672; g«0, ii. 268; diebus, 342.

With Prepositions: multitudine, B. G. i. 2, 5; maleficio, 7, 3; maleficio, 9, 4;
see/ere, 14, 5; magnitudine, ii. 30, 4. te, Ca/. i. 18; legionibus, ii. 5; #/0, 7;

SELECTED EXAMPLES 45

26; his, 27. Argis, Aen. i. 24; mentis, 74; numine, 133; yJwe, 279; Ascanio,

LOCATIVE

Locative: domi, B. G. i. 18, 6; down, 20, 2; down, 28, 3; domi, iv. i, 5; domi,
i, 5. cfowf, Cat. i. 19; cfowf, 32; Romae, ii. 8; Romae, 17; Romae, Pomp. 19.
/MOTH', ;lew. i. 193; &M0w, ii. 380; Crelae, iii. 162; Libyae, iv. 36; humi,\. 78.

TENSES

Regular Sequence: pertinerent, B. G. i. 3, i; cremaretur, 4, i; extant, 5, i;
possent, 6, i; dicer ent, 7, 3. exspectes, Cat. i. 6; confideres, 8; cogitent, 9; z>eww-
sew/, 10; possit, 13. videat, Aen. i. 182; fundat, 193; credant, 218; pateant, 298;
iactemur, 332.

Irregular Sequence — Qwi: permanserit, Pomp. 54; duxerit, Arch. 25. laeserit, Aen.
ii. 231; intorserit 231; audierit, 346.

Irregular Sequence — Purpose: cernam, Aen. ii. 667; peragat, iv. 452; relinquat,
452; audires, vi. 534.

Irregular Sequence — Parenthetical Purpose: «'/, Ca/. iii. 10; miretur, Arch. 2.

Irregular Sequence — Result: debuerint, B. G. i. 11,3; consuerint, 14, 7;
defuerit, ii. 21, 5. sitinventum, Cat. iii. 17; diiudicatae sint, 25; videantur, Pomp.
10 ; audiatis, 33; dicatur, 39.

Irregular Sequence — Cum: pugnatum sit, B. G. i. 26, 2. ifn^, Ca£. ii. 15.
Irregular Sequence — Conditions Contrary to Fact: deberet, Pomp. 58. adforet,
Aen. ii. 522.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

Indicative: difierunt, B G. i. i, 2; suscepit, 3, 3; mittunt, 9, 2; subducit, 22,
3; promovit, 48, i. abutere, Cat. i. i; eludet, i; iactabit, i; moverunt, i; sentis,
i. ftwo, ylew. i. i; /wz/, 12; nascetur, 286; J^7, 402; praemittit, 644.

Imperative: desilite, B. G. iv. 25, 3. ww/a, Ca/. i. 6; cra/e, 6; obliviscere,
6; recognosce, 8; />erg£, 10. incute, Aen. i. 69; o&rwe, 69; age, 70; (/meg, 70;
per/er, 389.

Imperative — Noli and Infinitive: nolite dubitare, Pomp. 68.

NE AND IMPERATIVE: we credite, Aen. ii. 48; we &'we, 607; wew recusa, 607;
we linque, iii. 160; we dubita, 316.

SUBJUNCTIVE — VOLITIVE i p. : optemus, Cat. ii. 16; queramur,i6; consider e-
mus, Pomp. 36. sequamur, Aen. ii. 388; sequamur, iii. 114; petamus. 115;
petamus, 129; sequamur, 188.

SUBJUNCTIVE — VOLITIVE 2 p.: w/w, ^4ew. i. 733; maneas, ii. 160; 5en»ej,
160; imponas, iv. 497; od,m, 578.

Subjunctiv e — V o 1 i t i v e 3 p. : secedant, Cat. i. 32 ; congregentur, 32 ;
secernantur, 32; «/ inscriptum, 32; exeant, ii. 6. z'ac/e/, ^4ew. i. 140; regnet,
141; paeniteat, 549; /i'cea/, 551; s#, ii. 711.

Subjunctiv e — D e 1 i b e r a t i ve : laeter, Cat. iv. 2 ; commemorem, 15;
arbitraretur, Pomp. 31; dicam, 32; querar, 32. nesciat, Aen. i. 565; temperet,
ii. 8; explicet, 362; possit, 362; requirat, 390.

46 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

Subjunctive — Concessive: sit, Cat. iv. 21; ornetur, 21; habeatur, 21;
sit, 21 ; anteponatur, 21. fuisset, Aen. iv. 603.

SUBJUNCTIVE — OPTATIVE: eduxisset, Cat. ii. 4; haberetis, Pomp. 27. adforet,
Aen. i. 576; ferant, 605; fecissent, ii. no; mansisset, iii. 615; ostendat, vi. 188.

SUBJUNCTIVE — UNFULFILLED OBLIGATION: tulissem, Aen. iv. 604; implessem,
605; extinxem, 606; dedissem, 606; vocasses, 678.

Subjunctive — Potential: mallem, Cat. ii. 5; vereamini, iv. 13; possis, 22;
sumantur, Pomp. 44; disputarem,66. optem, Aen. iv. 24; cernas, 401; praestiterit,
vi. 39; vellent, 436.

Subjunctive for Imperative in Indirect Discourse: reverterentur, B. G. i. 7, 5;
reminisceretur, 13, 4; congrederetur, 36, 7; lacesserent, iv. n, 6; sustinerent,
11,6.

Subjunctive for Interrogative in Indirect Discourse: iudicaret, B. G. i. 40, 2;
vererentur, 40, 4; desperarent, 40, 4; ve//e/, 44, 8; veniret, 44, 8.

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES

With Quod: adortus esset, B. G. i. 13, 5; gloriarentur, 14, 4; videbat, 53, 6;
vetuerat, ii. 20, 3; excedebant, iii. 4, 3; occidit, Cat. i. 3; vacuefacta sunt, 16;
reliquerunt, 16; dedisti, 19; dixisti, 19. eripis, Aen. ii. 665.

Volitive: exirent, B. G. i. 2, i; occuparet, 3, 4; conaretur, 3, 5; paterentur
6, 3; toa/, 7, 3. videret, Cat. i. 4; adservarem, 19; commoveare, 22; me/, ii.
26; me/, iii. 8. w//e/, j4ew. ii. 653; secundarent, iii. 36; levarent, 36; careat, iv.
432; /*Vea/, v. 796.

With "Quin," etc. : possent, B. G. i. 3, 6; consciverit, 4, 4; s*«/ erepturi, 17, 4;
sumat, 31, 15; exirent, 33, 4. transmittendum sit, Pomp. 42; possit, 43; conferatis,
49; credatis, 68. atiou, 4e». iii. 456; poscas, 456.

Fear: oftenderet, B. G. i. 19, 2; posset, 39, 6; circumveniretur, 42, 4; adduce-
retur, ii. i, 2; circumvenirentur, 26, 2. dicat, Cat. i. 5; redundaret, 29; st/, ii. 15;
videamini, iv. 13; habeam, 14. deficeret, Aen. vi. 354; nocerent, 694.

Optative: audiatis, Cat. ii. 15; «a/, 16; 5*/, Pomp. 48. dehiscat, Aen. iv. 24;
a6^a/, 25.

Result: vagarentur, B. G. i. 2, 4; cremaretur, 4, i; haberet, 10, 2; arcesserentur,
31, 4; gravaretur, 35, 2. intellegas, Cat. i. 20; /><755^, 27; nominaretur, 27;
possem, ii. 4. praeterlabare, Aen. iii. 478.

Indirect Question: aga/, 5. G. i. 20, 6; loquatur, 20, 6; s*'/, 21, 2; ducerentur,
40, i; haberet, 40, 6. egem, Ca/. i. i; /wem, i; «'/, 16; sentiant, 20; impendeat,
22. iactetur, Aen. i. 668; vertant, 671; consederis, .iv. 39; accenderit, v. 4;
possit, 6.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

Indicative: incolunt, B. G. i. i, i; pertinent, i, 3; incolunt, i, 3;
es/, i, 5; dividit, 2, 3. machinaris, Cat. i. 2; convenit, 4; oportuit, 5; fuerunt,
8; oportebat, 9. vidimus, Aen. \. 584; mft, ii. 5; /«*', 6; obtulerat, 61; demisere,
85

SELECTED EXAMPLES 47

Imperative: spargite, A en. iii. 605.

Purpose: dicerent, B. G. i. 7, 3; cognoscerent, 21, i; sustineret, 24, i; postu-
larent, 34, i; perterrerent, 49, 3. praestolarentur, Cat. i. 24; efferret, iii. 8; am-
pere/, 8; praeponeretis, Pomp. 63; inferatur, 65. saVe/, -4e«. i. 63; onerent, 706;
ponant, 706; piaret, ii. 184; reddat, iv. 479.

Wish: convertant, Aen. ii. 191.

Descriptive: possent, B. G. i. 6, i; tolerarent, 28, 3; insilirent, 52, 5;
recusaret, iii. 22, 3; mm/, 28, i. audeat, Cat. i. 6; expectes, 6; audiam, 8;
cogitent, 9; po^'/, 13. res/e/, 4erc. ii. 142; cwre/, 536; &cea/, iii. 461; ve&/, iv.
488; w/w/, v. 486.

Result: fateatur, .Cat. i. 5; fateatur, 30; wa/j/, ii. 16; nege/, iii. 21; movear,
iv. 3. frangeret, Aen. v. 591; and perhaps possent, vi. 200.

Cause: mm, Ca/. i. 19; sciam, 24; sciam, 24; sdam, 24; sentirent, iii. 5.
laeserit, Aen. ii. 231; intorserit, 231; audierit, 346; traxerit, v. 624; simularet,
vi. 591.

Concession: respondisset, Cat. iii. 10; dixisset, 10; potuisset, Pomp. 26. wse/,
^4ew. ii. 248; 5/w dedignata, iv. 536.

Condition: lenierit, Cat. iv. 12; «7, 16.

ADVERB CLAUSES

Indicative: em/, 5. G. i. 8, 4; em/, 10, 3; intermittit, 38, 5; demonstravimus,
ii. i, i; posiulabat, 33, 2. vivw, Ca/. i. 6; fecerunt, 6; coepisti, 10; metuunt, 17;
opinor, 17. J#to, ^4m. i. 83; ludunt, 397; cinxere, 398; iwj^, iii. 236; ferent,
vi. 822.

Purpose: suppeteret, B. G. i. 3, i; essent, 5, 3; posset, 7, 5; impetrarent, 9, 2;
posset, 13, i. possis, Cat. i. 6; videatur, 14; opprimar, 18; desinam, 18; videaris,
23. exigat, Aen. i. 75; pateant, 298; posset, 413; petamus, 554; inspires, 688.

Result: condonet, B. G. i. 20, 5; videretur, 33, 5; perturbaret, 39, i; jare/,
44, 9; posset, ii. 25, i. coercerent, Cat. i. 3; viderentur, 15; videar, 16; revocarit,
22; putarem, 29.

Time — "Cum": conaretur,B.G. i. 4, 3; nuntiatum esset, 7, i; exisset, 12, 5;
possent, 13, 5; potuit, iii. 9, 2. conftderes, Cat. i. 8; voluisti, n; haesitaret, ii.
13; teneretur, 13; videretis, iii. 4. peteret, Aen. i. 651; s/are/, ii. 113; diffideret,
iii. 51; frangeret, 625; manderet, 627.

Time — "Antequam," etc.: conaretur, B. G. i. 19, 3; appetissent, 43, 7; />erz>£-
nerunt, 53, i; attigisset, ii. 32, i; s// concessum, iii. 18, 7. ra&o, Gz/. iv. 20.
venimus, Aen. ii. 743; subigat, iii. 257; />ojm, 387; w'0/0, iv. 27; decerpserit,
vi. 141.

Time— "Dum," etc.: convenient, B. G. \. 7, 5; peruenirent, n, 6; potuerit,
17, 6; accessisset, iv. n, 6; />O/MJ/, 12, 5. m/, Ca/. i. 6; insidiatus es, n; />e/w/i,
n; delectantur, ii. 20; continebatur, iii. 16. manebant, Aen. ii. 22; s/a&a/, 88;
manebant, 455; sinebant, iv. 651; da&a/, v. 415.

Time — "Postquam," etc. : arbitrati sunt, B. G. i. 5, 2; /ac/i 5«w/, 7, 3; vent/,
8, 3; constiterunt, iv. 26, 5; receperunt, 27, i. "adsedisti, Cat. \. 16; i«ww5 &s/, ii.

48 SYNTAX OF HIGH- SCHOOL LATIN

12; erupit, iii. 3; vidi, 4; comperi, 4. flectit, Aen. i. 156; exempta, 216; introgressi,
520; remotae, 723; concessit, ii. 91.

Proviso: intersit, Cat. i. 10; «/, 22; depellatur, ii. 15; ea/, 15; pariatur, iv. i.
lm. iii. 116; sequatur, iv. 109; remetior, v. 25.

Cause — "Cum": praestarent, B. G. i. 2, 2; possent, 9, 2; possent, n, 2; swsce-

/, 16, 6; teneret, 20, 4. sw/, Ca/. i. 10; «'«/, ii 15; sit, 24; sw/, 26; MW/,
iv. 18.

Cause — "Quod," etc.: absunt, B. G. i. i, 3; contendunl, i, 4; continentur,
2, 3; me/, 3, 6; patebat, ii. 8, 2; effugimus, Cat. i. n; audeo, 12; contineremur,
19; extulit, ii. 2; egressus est, 2. remordet, Aen. i. 261; vetabat, ii. 84; reliqui,
iv. 315; resto/, 324; «mtf, 538.

Concession — "Cum": sw/, 5. G. i. 14, 6; posset, 16, 6; pugnatum sit, 26, 2;
haberet, 43, 5; venirent, ii. 29, i. jw, C0/. i. 16; consumeret, ii. 9; scirem, 13;
placeret, iii. 7; posset, n. cuperem, Aen. v. 810.

Concession — "Quamquam," etc.: repetissent, B. G. i. 30, 2. videbam,
Cat.\. n; fuerunt,i&; premuntur, ii. 19; sunt, 27; est depulsum, iii. 29. recessit,
Aen. ii. 300; tenetur, 533; cw/>j/, iv. 394; geniti, vi. 394; invicti essent, 394.

Concession — Quamvis, etc.: acciderent, B. G. iii. 9, 6; deiecit, Aen. v. 542; fixerit,
vi. 802; pacarit, 803; tremefecerit, 803.

Concession — "Etsi," etc. : videbat, B. G. i. 46, 3; existimabant, iii. 24, 2; exacta
erat, 28, i; proponebatur, iv. 17, 2; vergit, 20, i. possit, Cat. i. 19; defendant,
Pomp. 13; /ac/a es/, 15; s««/, 64; habetis, 66. es/, ^4ew. ii. 584; /ta&e/, 584.

Conditions — Simple: consults, Cat. i. 13; contigit, 16; potes,2o; neglegis,
28; es/, 29. M'<, ^4ew. i. 376; docuere, 392; servant, 546; vescitur, 546; pervenit,
ii. 81.

Conditions — Simple-General: era/, B. G. i. 48, 6; deciderat, 48, 6; era/, 48, 7; c0e-
perant, iii. 12, 2. biberunt, Cat. i. 31; conspexere, Aen. i. 152.

Conditions — More Vivid Future: iussero, Cat. i. 5; iussero, 12; exieris,
12; feceris, 23; t'er&} 23. intraro, Aen. iii. 501; certo, iv. 125; attigerit, 568;
extulerit, v. 65; acceperit, vi. 770.

Conditions — Less Vivid Future: loquatur, Cat. i. 19; velint, ii. 20; deficiant, 25;
dicam, iii. 22. dedissent, Aen. ii. 136; spondeat, v. 18.

Conditions — Contrary to Fact: metuerent, Cat. i. 17; viderem, 17; /^
rew/, 17; dixissem, 21; iudicarem, 29. ferant, Aen. i. 59; juisset, ii. 54; possent,
292; adforet, 522; resistat, 599.

Conditions in Indirect Discourse: conentur, B. G. i. 8, 3; dentur, 14, 6;
satis faciant, 14, 6; possint, 17, 3; accidat, 18, 9. decreverit, Cat. i. 20; pervenerit,
30; multassem, ii. 4; perierit, 23; flexissent, iii. 19. tulisset, Aen. ii. 94; remeas-
sem, 95; repetant, 178; violasset, 189; ascendisset, 192.

COMPARISON: adesset, B. G. i. 32, 4. videamus, Pomp. 67. incidit, Aen. ii.
305; pressit, 380; confligunt, 417; jorent, 439; morerentur, 439.

Subordinate Clause in Indirect Discourse: vicerit, B. G. i. 31, 12; referret, 35,
2; censuisset, 35, 4; superati essent, 36, 3; accessisset, 42, i. contineremur, Cat.

'In this passage the manuscript does not show quamquam, and it is doubtful that Caesar
uses it anywhere.

SELECTED EXAMPLES 49

i. 19; incendissent, iii. 8; fecisset, 8; vellet, n; persequeretur, Pomp. 22. repetant,
Aen. ii. 178; reducat, 178; violasset, 189; ascendisset, 192; speret, iv. 292.

Attraction: viderentur, B. G. ii. n, 5; continerentur, n, 5; arbitraretur, iii.
i, 3; posset, n, 5; afflictarentur, 12, i. increpuerit, Cat. i. 18; faceret, iii. 4;
eweJ, 8; sare/, 8; licuisset, Pomp. 62. sint, Aen. iii. 262; possent, vi. 200 may be
Repeated Action. .

INFINITIVES

Subject: potiri, B. G. i. 2, 2; perficere, 3, 6; se^wi, 4, i; facere, 7, 3; jacere,
7, 3. dwa, Ca/. i. 2; inter fectum esse, 4; factumesse, 5; trucidare, 9; proficisci, 9.
condere, Aen. i. 33; capessere, 77; oppetere, 96; componere, 135; meminisse, 203.

Appositive: retentos, B. G. iii. 9, 3; coniectos, 9, 3; missas esse, iv. 6, 3;
resistere, 7, 3; deprecari, 7, 3. iacere, Cat. i. 26; vigilare, 26; multare, 29;
insidiari, ii. 10; valuisse, Arch. 15. explorare, Aen. i. 77; struere, 704; cogno-
scere, ii. 10; SO/MJ, 350; succurrere, 451.

Predicate Noun: s per are, Aen. ii. 354; consider ey iv. 349.

Complementary: inferre, B, G. i. 2, 4; comparare, 3, i; potiri, 3, 7; exsequi,
4> 31 facere, 5, i. vast are, Cat. i. 3; defender e, 6; negare, 8; inter ficere, n;
facere, 12. avertere, Aen. i. 38; submergere, 40; premere, 63; miscere, 134;
petere, 158.

Object: d^ere, 5. G. i. 4, i; e^erre, 5, 3; *re, 6, 3; rescindi, 7, 2; ire, 9, 4.
hebescere, Cat. i. 4; ewe, 4; comprehendi, 5; interfici, 12; exire, 13. volvere, Aen.
i. 9; celerare, 357; consistere, 541; moliri, 564; consistere, 629.

Indirect Discourse: obtinere, B. G. i. i, 5; ewe, 2, 2; habere, 2, 5; ewe, 3, 2,
ewe, 3, 6. pater e, Cat. i. i; teneri, i; factum esse, 5; jactum esse, 5; dicer e, 7.
coluisse, Aen. \. 16; dwa', 19; misceri, 124; />aft', 219; /ore, 235.

With Adjectives: decertare, B. G. i. 44, 4; iurare, ii. 3, 3; recipere, 3, 3; facere,
3, 3, dare, 3, 3. wm, ylew. iv. 564; certare, v. 108; a'ere, vi. 165; accendere,
165; credere, 173.

Exclamation: desistere, Aen. i. 37; /><wse, 38: potuisse, 98.

Historical: flagitare, B. G. i. 16, i; ducere, 16, 4; dicere, 16, 4; respondere,
32, 3; permanere, 32, 3. terrere, Aen. ii. 98; parari, 132; /Zwere, 169; trepidare,
685; fo//ere, 699.

PURPOSE: diffundere, Aen. i. 319; audire, 373; populare, 527; C0&, iii. 77;
/erre, v. 248.

PARTICIPLES

Present: inopinantes, B. G. i. 12, 3; /2e«s, 20, 5; succedentibus, 25, 6; vem'-
ew/e^, 25, 7; venientes, 26, 3. labefactantem, Cat. i. 3; cupientem, 3; studentem,
3; molientem, 5; sentientem, 6. dolens, Aen. i. 9; metuens, 23; seruans, 36;
expirantem, 44; volutans, 50.

Perfect: divisa, B. G. i. i, i; inductus, 2, i; adducti, 3, i; adducti, 3, 7;
WM', 5, 4. constrictam, Cat. i. i; inclusum, 4; obsessus, 6; dimisso, 10; concitato,
n. laeso, Aen. i. 8; posthabita, 16; repostum, 26; flammato, 50; submersas, 69

50 SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

FUTURE: futuris, Aen. i. 210; futuris, 429; futuris, 504; inspectura, ii. 47;
ventura, 125.

Active Periphrastic: obtenturus esset, B. G. i. 3, 6; portaturi erant, 5, 3;
sint erepturi, 17, 4; gesturi essent, iii. 9, 6. es/ iturus, Cat. ii. 15; sw«2 ducturi,
23; «/ habiturus, 24; essem dicturus, Pomp. 17; perfecturus sit, 45. dicturus est,
Aen. iii. 154.

Gerundive: effeminandos, B. G. i. i, 3; conficiendas, 3, 2; conficiendas, 3, 3;
iurandum, 3, 7; subeunda, 5, 3. habendi, Cat. i. i; deponendam, 4; reprimendorum,
7; interficiendorum, 15; neglegendas, 18. volvendis, Aen. i. 269; miranda, 494;
tremendum, ii. 199; horrendos, ii. 222; videndam, 589.

Passive Periphrastic: concedendum, B. G. i. 7, 4; expectandum, n, 6; timen-
dum, 14, 2; prospiciendum, 23, i; mmtf perferendi, 32, 5. m/ verendum, Cat.
i. 5; es/ admirandum, 7; habenda est, ii; w/ periclitanda, ii; ferendum, 16.
quaerendi, Aen. ii. 118; litandum, 118; temptanda, 176; ducendum, 232; oranda,
232.

GERUND

Gerund: bellandi, B. G. i. 2, 4; proficiscendum, 3, i; deliberandum, 7, 5;
largiendum, 18, 4; quaerendo, 18, 10. custodiendum, Cat. i. 19; vivendum, 29;
credendo, 30; impellendo, ii. 8; vigilandi, 22. veniendi, Aen. i. 414; fandi, 520;
/awdo, ii. 6; visendi, 63; fando, 81.

SUPINE

In -um: rogatum, B. G. i. ii, 2; gratulatum, 30, i; postulatum, 31, 9; questum,
37, 2; frumentatum, iv. 32, i. salutatum, Cat. i. 10. servitum, Aen. ii. 786;
venatum, iv. 117.

IN -u: /ac/M, 5. G. i. 3, 6; /ac/w, iv. 30, 2. /ac/w, Ca/. i. 29; dz'c/w, Pomp. 42;
, 65. z>is#, ^4ew. i. in; £/JC/M, 439; <&c/w, ii. 174; (/j'dw, 680; vww, iii. 621.

THE SAME EXAMPLES IN THEIR ORDER OF
OCCURRENCE IN THE TEXTS

CAESAR B. G. i1

1,1

Gallia

2, i Messala

3, 3 Orgetorix

divisa

regni

sibi

quarum

inductus

suscepit

unam

nobilitatis

3, 4 annos

incolunt

civitati

senatu

aliam

finibus

occuparet

tertiam

copiis

3, 5 tempore

lingua

exirent

civitate

1,2

lingua

2, 2 esse

plebi

institutis

virtute

conaretur

se

omnibus

ei

differunt

praestarent

3, 6 factu

Aquitanis

imperio

esse

Belgis

potiri

illis

i,3

horum

2,3 eis

perficere

cultu

natura

obtenturus esset

provinciae

continentur

possent

absunt

dividit

se

ea

monte

illis

effeminandos

flumine

3, 7 adducti

pertinent

2, 4 vagarentur

iurandum

Germanis

finitimis

regno

Rhenum

inferre

Galliae

incolunt

bellandi

sese

bellum

dolore

potiri

1,4

Germanis

2, 5 multitudine

4, i Helvetiis

contendunt

se

dicere

finibus

habere

sequi

i,5

pars

passuum

cremaretur t

Gallos

3, i rebus

cremaretur

obtinere

adducti

4, 2 causae

dictum est

proficiscendum

indicium

flumine

pertinerent t

4, 3 rem

septentriones

comparare

exsequi

1,6

finibus

itinere

conaretur

partem

suppeteret

hominum

fluminis

civitatibus

agris

septentrionem

3, 2 conficiendas

4, 4 consciverit

i,7

montes

biennium

5, i facere

Oceani

esse

exeant t

2, I

is

3, 3 conficiendas

5, 2 arbitrati sunt

1 The letter t after a word indicates that a question of tense is involved. For
abbreviations and numerical references see footnote, p. 33.

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

5,3

se

9,2

his

16,3

frumento

portaturi erant

possent

16, 4

ducere

reditionis

mittunt

dicere

spe

impetrarent

16,5

vergobretum

subeunda

9,3

cupiditate

16, 6

posset

essent

regni

iis

mensium

9,4

ire

susceperit

sibi

maleficio

17,3

possint

efferre

10,2

periculo

17,4

Haeduis

5,4

Rauracis

haberet

sint

usi

io,3

munitioni

17,6

potuerit

consilio

erat

18,3

rerum

oppidis

10,5

die

annos

6,1

possent t

n, i

Aeduorum

pretio

possent

11,2

possent

18,4

largiendum

6,2

multo

rogatum

18, 6

domi

6,3

finibus

n,3

tempore

causa

Allobrogibus

debuerit t

18,7

matre

animo

11,4

tempore

18, 9

accidat

ire

n,5

sibi

18, 10

quaerendo

paterentur

11,6

expectandum

19,2

offenderet

6,4

rebus

sibi

19,3

conaretur

die

pervenirent

20, I

lacrimis

7, i

Caesari

12, I

lenitati

20, 2

domi

nuntiatum esset

12,3

inopinantes

20,3

opibus

7,2

Gallia

12,5

exisset

20,4

teneret

rescind!

12,6

populo

20,5

flens

7,3

facti sunt

13,1

posset

tanti

dicerent t

13,4

reminisceretur

condonet

dicerent

INCOMMODI

20, 6

agat

animo

VIRTUTIS

loquatur

maleficio

13,5

adortus esset

21, I

cognoscerent

facere

possent

21, 2

sit

eius

14, 1

eo

21,4

rei

sibi

14, 2

iniuriae

22,1

passibus

facere

sibi

22,3

subducit

liceat

se

23,1

prospiciendum

7,4

concedendum

timendum

24, I

sustineret

animo

14,3

CONTUMELIAE

24, 2

legionum

itineris

14,4

victoria

25,3

sinistra

7,5

posset

gloriarentur

25,6

succedentibus

convenirent

14,5

quo

praesidio

deliberandum

scelere

25,7

venientes

reverterentur

14,6

sint

26, I

proelio

8,1

milia

iis

26, 2

pugnatum sit t

pedum

dentur

pugnatum sit

8,2

quo

satisfaciant

26,3

venientes

8,3

legatis

14,7

maioribus

26, 4

impedimentis

venit

consuerint t

27,4

dediticiorum

conentur

15,3

equitum

28,1

sibi

8,4

fluminis

15,5

dies

28,3

domi

erat

16, i

frumentum

tolerarent

9,i

angustias

flagitare

28,4

Galliae

EXAMPLES IN ORDER OF OCCURRENCE

53

28,

5

virtute

34,

a

ipsi

40,

4

desperarent

30,

i

gratulatum

35,

2

referret

40,

6

haberet

30,

a

repetissent

sibi

40,

12

nihil

3°,

3

domicilio

35,

3

hominum

42,

I

accessisset

3°,

5

concilio

35,

4

sibi

42,

4

circumveniretur

3i,

4

arcesserentur

censuisset

43,

5

haberet

3i,

9

postulatum

36,

3

superati essent

43,

7

appetissent

3i,

12

vicerit

36,

4

sibi

44,

4

decertare

3i,

14

Gallis

36,

7

congrederetur

44,

8

vellet

3i,

^5

sumat

37,

a

questum

veniret

32,

2

Caesar

38,

5

intennittit

44,

9

rerum

32,

3

respondere

altitudine

sciret

permanere

39,

i

dies

46,

3

videbat

32,

4

ADESSET

magnitudine

48,

i

promovit

32,

5

Sequanis

perturbaret

48,

a

eum

perferendi

39,

a

tribunis

48,

6

erat

33,

i.

curae

causa

deciderat

33,

a

sibi

39,

3

sibi

48,

7

erat

33,

4

exirent

39,

6

posset

49,

3

perterrerent

33,

5

videretur

40,

i

ducerentur

52,

5

insilirent

34,

i

postularent

40,

a

iudicaret

53,

i

pervenerunt

colloquio

40,

4

vererentur

53,

6

videbat

CAESAR B. G. ii

i,

,i

demonstravimus

5,

•a

salutis

20,

3

vetuerat

i,

2

adduceretur

5,

4

Axonam

21,

5

defuerit t

2,

3

gerantur

5,

6

pedum

25,

i

posset

3,

i

opinione

' 6,

2

hominum

26,

2

circumvenirentur

3,

3

dare

6,

3

nulli

29,

I

venirent

facere

8,

a

patebat

29,

4

Cimbris

recipere

10,

i

pontem

3°,

4

magnitudine

iuvare

ii,

5

viderentur

32,

I

attigisset

4,

2

Germanis

continerentur

33,

2

postulabat

5,

2

rei

CAESAR B. G, iii

i,

3

arbitraretur

9>

6

acciderent

18,

7

sit concessum

4,

3

excedebant

gesturi essent

22,

i

soldurios

9,

2

potuit

ii,

5

posset

22,

3

recusaret

9,

3

retentos

12,

i

modi

24,

a

existimabant

coniectos

afflictarentur

28,

i

exacta erat

multum

12,

2

coeperant

essent

CAESAR B. G. iv

i,

5

domi

7,

3

resistere

21,

7

regem

domi

deprecari

magni

i,

7

anno

ii,

6

lacesserent

25,

3

desilite

i,

8

multum

sustinerent

milites

maximam partem

accessisset

26,

5

constiterunt

2,

2

pretio

12,

5

potuit

27,

i

receperunt

3,

3

ceteris

13,

4

legatis

3°,

2

FACTU

multum

16,

6

Rhenum

32,

I

frumentatum

Si

3

QUORUM

17,

2

proponebatur

6,

3

missas

20,

I

vergit

54

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

CICERO CAT. i

i abutere

3 manu

6 sentientem

Catilina

occidit

fecerunt

patientia

re publica

exspectes t

furor

suppliciis

exspectes

nos

coercerent

muta

eludet

Catilina

mihi

finem

4 videret

crede

sese

quid

obliviscere

iactabit

detriment!

CAEDIS

nihil

seditionum

INCENDIORUM

te

patre

luce

Palati

diem

me

urbis

diem

7 dicere

populi

hebescere

die

bonorum

modi

est admirandum

habendi

inclusum

optumatium

senatus

tabulis

Roma

horum

interfectum esse

reprimendorum

moverunt

Catilina

discessu

patere

convenit

8 Kalendis

consilia

deponendam

confideres t

sentis

patres

confideres

constrictam

esse

audiam

scientia

periculis

recognosce

teneri

inertiae

me

coniurationem

nequitiae

nocte

quid

castra

negare

egeris

Italia

te

fueris

faucibus

fuerunt

consili

castrorum

9 gentium

quern

hostium

urbis

nostrum

rei publicae

cogitent t

2 tempora

molientem

cogitent

mores

comprehend!

trucidare

senatum

iussero

oportebat

consili

erit verendum

nocte

nostrum

mihi

proficisci

mortem

me

te

te

f actum esse

cura

Catilina

dicat

10 coetu

duci

factum esse

dimisso

te

oportuit

salutatum

pestem

factum esse

venissent t

nos

fateatur

sint

machinaris

6 erit

perge

3 labefactantem

defendere

coepisti

caede

audeat

urbe

vastare

vivis

te

cupientem

praesidiis

metu

rebus

obsessus

intersit

studentem

possis

ii dis

EXAMPLES IN ORDER OF OCCURRENCE

55

II

habenda est

1 6 ferendum

22

is

lovi

17 pacto

revocarit

effugimus

metuerent

23

feceris

est periclitanda

metuunt

ieris

mihi

tibi

laudi

insidiatus es

viderem

me

interficere

conscientia

videaris

voluisti

agnoscas

24

quid

amicorum

timerent

sciam

tumultu

ratione

praestolarentur

concitato

opinor

cui

petisti

18 modo

sciam

tibi

te

tibi

videbam

tibi

tuis

12

imperi

neglegendas

cui

facere

fuerunt

sciam

audeo

increpuerit

26

laetitia

interfici

opprimar

gaudiis

iussero

desinam

iacere

coniuratorum

19 loquatur

vigilare

exieris

possit

27

posses

urbe

dedisti

nominaretur

13

me

causa

mihi

exire

dixisti

vita

consulis

quo

28

morte

possit t

domi

commendatione

possit

adservarem

neglegis

vitae

essem

29

est

adulescentulo

contineremur

ego

14

nuptiis

quo

FACTU

videantur

custodiendum

iudicarem

15

tibi

dignum

morte

scias

custodia

multari

Lepido

20 animo

vivendum

interficiendorum

potes

redundaret

causa

decreverit

animo

sceleri

intellegas

gloriam

viderentur

sentiant

putarem

16

tibi

quid

' 3°

credendo

te

ecquid

pervenerit

sit

21 adulescenti

fateatur

videar

viro

hoc

tibi

dixissem

31

homines

contigit

22 quid

biberunt

sis

nobis

32

secedant

vacuefacta sunt

memoria

congregentur

tibi

impendeat

secernantur

adsedisti

tanti

domi

reliquerunt

sit

sit inscriptum

animo

commoveare

tibi

temporibus

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

CICERO CAT. ii

2

extulit

10 insidiari

18

his

egressus est

12 iussus est

19

premuntur

ei

civem

rerum

4

morte

hostem

20

delectantur

multasse.m

13 haesitaret

velint

possem

teneretur

22

Catilinae

EDUXISSET

scirem

capillo

aere

15 tanti

vigilandi

5

legionibus

depellatur

23

perierit

mallem

eat

sunt ducturi

6

Catilinae

est iturus

24

sit habiturus

lenitati

audiatis

25

deficiant

exeant

sit

26

sint

7

rem publicam

sint

urbi

annos

sint t

motu

illo

16 malit

esset

8

impellendo

OPTEMUS

27

sunt

Romae

eat

his

9

consumeret

QUERAMUR

portis

10

nos

17 Romae

viae

rem publicam

2 nobis

3 diebus
erupit

4 vidi
faceret
videretis
comperi

5 PRAECLARA
EGREGIA

sentirent
opera
7 placeret

CICERO CAT. iii

8 esset
efferret
sciret
praesidio
incendissent
fecisset

exciperet
10 sit t
Cethego
respondisset
dixisset

10 ferramentorum

11 vellet
posset

1 6 continebatur

17 sit inventum t

19 flexissent

20 dies

21 neget

22 dicam

25 diiudicatae sint t

29 est depulsum

CICERO CAT. iv

I

SALUTIS

II

me

17

multo

pariatur

oculos

18

sint

2

laeter

12

lenierit

20

redeo

3

movear

13

vereamini

FACTORUM

5

me

videamini

CONSILIORUM

6

noctem

multo

21

sit

opinione •

14

habeam

ornetur

7

morte

ordinum

habeatur

punctum

15

commemorem

sit

8

inferos

16

sit

anteponatur

9

mea

17

tabernas

22

possis

EXAMPLES IN ORDER OF OCCURRENCE

57

I multo

6 modi

10 multo

videantur t

13 defendant

14 ubertate

15 facta est

16 fructui

17 essem dicturus
curae

parvi

19 Romae
22 persequeretur

26 potuisset

27 genere
magnitudine

HABERETIS

CICERO POMP.

27 virtute

28 homine
civitatibus
nationibus

31 arbitraretur

32 praesidio
querar
dicam

33 audiatis t

36 CONSIDEREMUS

39 dicatur t

42 DICTU

transmittendum
sit

43 possit

44 gentium
sumantur

45 perfecturus sit

48 sit

49 conferatis
54 permanserit t

58 deberet t

59 eo

62 licuisset

63 praeponeretis

64 sunt

65 DICTU
inferatur

66 disputarem
habetis

67 VIDEAMUS

68 nolite dubitare
credatis

1 temporis
saluti

2 miretur t

3 hominum

1 anna
cano
Troiae

2 Italiam
fato

3 litora
multum
terris
alto

4 vi
superum
lunonis

5 urbem

6 deos
LATIO

7 Romae

8 mihi
causas
laeso

9 dolens
deum
volvere

1 1 animis

12 urbs
fuit

CICERO ARCH.

3 modi

13 studiis

14 parvi

15 valuisse

VERGIL AEN. \

1 8 doctrina
sanctos

25 duxerit t

26 QUIDDAM

14

opum

33

condere

belli

34

altum

15

quam

35

aere

terris

36

luno

i6

posthabita

servans

coluisse

37

se

Samo

me

17

hoc

incepto

gentibus

desistere

19

progeniem

38

posse

duci

avertere

21

populum

39

fatis

bello

40

submergere

22

excidio

ponto

Parcas

43

ventis

23

metuens

44

expirantem

24

Argis

45

turbine

26

animo

scopulo

repostum

47

gente

27

formae

annos

29

aequore

49

aris

31

Latio

50

flammato

annos

se

32

fatis

corde

33

molis

volutans

SYNTAX OF HIGH- SCHOOL LATIN

51

patriam

132

generis

301

alarum

55

murmure

133

numine

313

ferro

59

ferant

134

miscere

314

cui

se

135

componere

317

fuga

63

premere

137

regi

319

DIFFUNDERE

sciret

138

pelagi

320

GENU

64

vocibus

140

Eure

322

sororum

65

Aeole

iactet

325

Venus

tibi

141

regnet

326

mihi

67

mihi

142

dicto

sororum

68

Italiam

I52

conspexere

328

HOMINEM

69

incute

156

flectit

329

sanguinis

ventis

158

petere

332

iactemur t

submersas

164

silvis

335

honore

obrue

166

scopulis

336

virginibus

70

age

167

saxo

339

bello

disice

171

telluris

34i

iniuria

7i

mihi

172

harena

343

huic

corpore

174

primum

auri

72

forma

178

rerum

349

amore

73

conubio

182

videat t

357

celerare

74

meritis

189

primum

359

argenti

75

exigat

193

fundat t

361

quibus

parentem

humi

373

AUDIRE

76

Aeolus

navibus

376

iit

regina

203

meminisse

377

ORIS

77

explorare

207

rebus

385

PLURA

capessere

210

praedae

387

caelestibus

78

mihi

FUTURIS

. 389

perfer

regni

215

bacchi

392

docuere

81

cuspide

ferinae

397

ludunt

82

agmine

216

exempta

398

cinxere

83

data

218

credant t

402

dixit

turbine

219

pati

407

quid

84

mari

228

OCULOS

4i3

posset

89

ponto

232

quibus

414

veniendi

92

Aeneae

235

fore

425

tecto

96

oppetere

241

rex

429

FUTURIS

gentis

251

infandum

43°

aestate

98

potuisse

257

metu

439

mirabile

IO2

iactanti

Cytherea

DICTU

IO4

undis

261

remordet

440

ulli

105

cumulo

269

volvendis

441

umbrae

aquae

mensibus

445

saecula

106

his

272

annos

458

ambobus

109

aras

279

fine

469

velis

in

miserabile

286

nascetur

470

somno

VISU

origine

484

auro

112

harenae

289

CAELO

494

miranda

122

compagibus

297

Maia

504

FUTURIS

I23

rimis

298

pateant t

514

laetitia

124

misceri

pateant

520

introgressi

EXAMPLES IN ORDER OF OCCURRENCE

59

520

fandi

576

ADFORET

668

iactetur

526

generi

579

ANIMUM

669

dolore

527

POPULARE

582

dea

671

vertant

538

ORIS

584

vidimus

672

cardine

541

consistere

589

OS

683

noctem

544

quo

deo

688

inspires

546

servant

601

opis

689

dictis

vescitur

605

FERANT

695

dicto

aura

613

aspectu

704

struere

549

paeniteat

616

ORIS

706

onerent

55i

liceat

623

mihi

ponant

554

petamus

629

consistere

723

remotae

564

moliri

644

praemittit

733

VELIS

565

nesciat

651

peteret

745

tantum

574

mihi

659

Ascanio

750

MULTA

VERGIL "AEN. ii

5

vidi

J43

LABORUM

350

sequi

6

fui

144

ANIMI

354

sperare

fando

160

MANEAS

362

explicet

8

temperet

SERVES

possit

10

cognoscere

169

fluere

380

PRESSIT

22

manebant

174

DICTU

humi

47

INSPECTURA

176

temptanda

388

SEQUAMUR

48

equo

178

repetant

39°

requirat

NE CREDITE

reducat

417

CONFLIGUNT

54

fuisset

184

piaret

439

FORENT

57

MANUS

189

violasset

MORERENTUR

61

obtulerat

191

convertant

45i

succurrere

63

visendi

192

ascendisset

455

manebant

79

miserum

199

multo

522

adforet t

81

fando

tremendum

adforet

pervenit

216

auxilio

533

tenetur

84

vetabat

219

capite

536

curet

85

demisere

cervicibus

584

est

88

stabat

222

horrendos

habet

91

concessit

231

laeserit t

589

videndam

94

tulisset

laeserit

599

resistat

95

remeassem

intorserit t

607

NE TIME

98

terrere

intorserit

NEU RECUSA

104

magno

232

ducendum

653

vellet

no

FECISSENT

oranda

665

eripis

H3

staret

248

esset

667

cernam t

118

quaerendi

268

quo

680

DICTU

litandum

292

possent

685

trepidare

125

VENTURA

300

recessit

699

tollere

132

parari

305

INCIDIT

711

sit

136

dedissent

342

diebus

743

venimus

J39

poenas

346

audierit t

773

nota

142

restet

audierit

786

servitum

6o

SYNTAX OF HIGH-SCHOOL LATIN

VERGIL AEN. in

36

secundarent

162

Cretae

456

adeas

levarent

188

SEQUAMUR

poscas

49

auri

214

illis

461

liceat

diffideret

224

dapibus

478

praeterlabare

55

auro

236

iussi

501

intraro

77

COLI

257

subigat

533

euroo

H4

SEQUAMUR

262

sint

605

spargite

IZ5

PETAMUS

309

tempore

615

MANSISSET

116

cursu

316

NE DUBITA

621

VISU

adsit

334

Chaonios

625

frangeret

129

PETAMUS

387

possis

627

manderet

154

dicturus est

453

tanti

629

SUI

160

NE LINQUE

VERGIL AEN. iv

18

THALAMI

292

speret

483

gentis

24

optem

315

reliqui

488

velit

dehiscat

318

DOMUS

497

IMPONAS

25

abigat

324

restat

523

terras

27

violo

335

ELISSAE

536

sim dedignata

36

Libyae

349

considere

538

iuvat

39

consederis

356

love

564

mori

5°

veniam

' 357

auras

568

attigerit

61

cornua

377

love

578

ADSIS

71

nemora

394

cupit

603

fuisset

109

sequatur

401

cernas

604

TULISSEM

117

venatum

432

careat

605

IMPLESSEM

125

certae

435

SORORIS

606

EXTINXEM

altaria

452

peragat t

DEDISSEM

182

mirabile

relinquat t

615

populi

221

FAMAE

454

horrendum

651

sinebant

267

REGNI

468

VIAM

678

VOCASSES

RERUM

479

reddat

VERGIL AEN. v

4

accenderit

78

humi

542

deiecit

6

possit

108

certare

frangeret

12

Jr

puppi

174

sui

624

traxerit

18

spondeat

245

victorem

796

liceat

ig

vespere

248

FERRE

810

cuperem

25

remetior

415

dabat

862

ITER

65

extulerit

486

velint

VERGIL AEN. vi

39

praestiterit

394

geniti

694

nocerent

141

decerpserit

invicti essent

759

fata

165

ciere

430

mortis

761

lucis

accendere

436

vellent

770

acceperit

I73

credere

534

adires t

802

fixerit

188

OSTENDAT

591

simularet

803

pacarit

200

possent

621

auro

tremefecerit

354

deficeret

622

pretio

822

ferent

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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LD 21-100m-12,'46(A2012sl6)4120

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ITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY